tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-55248678082534489052024-03-14T00:21:33.700+07:00the world of biologyhohohohoho......
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Need help with your biology homework?...Find resources and information to help you answer some of your biology homework questions...!!!!Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.comBlogger122125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-38090469310741621422009-10-08T21:04:00.002+07:002009-10-08T21:07:09.463+07:00New Mobile Lab Allows Researchers To Study Air Quality, Health Effects<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Ss3yAumGL2I/AAAAAAAAARc/mIgBfmmSH4w/s1600-h/091007171741.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer; width: 300px; height: 293px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Ss3yAumGL2I/AAAAAAAAARc/mIgBfmmSH4w/s320/091007171741.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5390230423354093410" border="0" /></a><br />A new mobile air research laboratory will help a team of researchers led by a Michigan State University professor better understand the damaging health effects of air pollution and why certain airborne particles - emitted from plants and vehicles - induce disease and illness.<br /><br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br /></span><p>Jack Harkema, a University Distinguished Professor of pathobiology and diagnostic investigation in the College of Veterinary Medicine, will deploy the new 53-foot, 36,000-pound center - dubbed "AirCARE 2" - throughout southern Michigan, including metropolitan Detroit.</p> <p>"The mobile laboratory allows us to analyze ‘real-world' pollution in communities that may be at risk," he said. "We can study why certain ailments, such as asthma, cardiovascular disease and even obesity, may be more pronounced after exposure to particulate air pollution."</p> <p>With about 450 square feet of indoor laboratory space, the $400,000 center helps researchers study fine and ultrafine particles in air pollution. These small particles have been found to increase mortality and morbidity among susceptible people with pre-existing health conditions such as heart disease.</p> <p>Housed in a converted semitrailer, the mobile laboratory pulls air from the surrounding atmosphere through an air-particle concentrator, allowing the scientists to selectively collect the particles and analyze for chemical components that may be responsible for damaging health effects.</p> <p>Researchers can study the subtle effects of controlled particle exposure on both laboratory animals and human subjects, providing clues on why and how pollutant particles are so harmful to the heart and lungs. Harkema works closely with environmental and biomedical researchers from the University of Michigan on the projects.</p> <p>"We know particles in the air can exacerbate pre-existing respiratory and cardiovascular disease in people," Harkema said. "We need to understand why. There are many different components to air pollution, and we want to determine which of these are most harmful and where there come from."</p> <p>The addition of the new mobile laboratory allows Harkema and U-M collaborators Robert Brook, a cardiologist, and Gerald Keeler, an atmospheric scientist, to conduct a new study funded by the Environmental Protection Agency. As part of the project, Harkema, Brook and Keeler will deploy AirCARE 2 in rural southeastern Michigan to study the cardiovascular health effects of transported air pollution originating from distant emission sites in Michigan or adjacent states.</p> <p>AirCARE 2 was partly funded through the MSU strategic partnership grant, the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, the College of Veterinary Medicine and the Office of the Vice President for Research and Graduate Studies. The new fine particle concentrator in the AirCARE 2 received some funds from the Electric Power Research Institute and the American Petroleum Institute.</p> <p>The first MSU Mobile Air Research Laboratory, AirCARE 1, currently spends six months of the year in metro Detroit conducting air pollution studies and then six months in Los Angeles as part of a six-university partnership known as the federal Southern California Particle Center in California. The $8 million partnership, funded by the EPA and led by UCLA, is a five-year endeavor to investigate how exposure to airborne particles affects health and how the impact varies with the source, chemical composition and physical size.</p><br /><span class="fullpost"><br /></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-74872925647070746272009-10-08T20:57:00.002+07:002009-10-08T20:59:33.066+07:00New Evidence That Green Tea May Help Improve Bone Health<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Ss3wI1fczFI/AAAAAAAAARU/TGuQvCwFJ2Y/s1600-h/090916103424.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer; width: 300px; height: 300px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Ss3wI1fczFI/AAAAAAAAARU/TGuQvCwFJ2Y/s320/090916103424.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5390228363620961362" border="0" /></a><br />Researchers in Hong Kong are reporting new evidence that green tea — one of the most popular beverages consumed worldwide and now available as a dietary supplement — may help improve bone health. They found that the tea contains a group of chemicals that can stimulate bone formation and help slow its breakdown.<br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br /></span><p>The beverage has the potential to help in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis and other bone diseases that affect million worldwide, the researchers suggest.</p> <p>In the new study, Ping Chung Leung and colleagues note that many scientific studies have linked tea to beneficial effects in preventing cancer, heart disease, and other conditions. Recent studies in humans and cell cultures suggest that tea may also benefit bone health. But few scientific studies have explored the exact chemicals in tea that might be responsible for this effect.</p> <p>The scientists exposed a group of cultured bone-forming cells (osteoblasts) to three major green tea components — epigallocatechin (EGC), gallocatechin (GC), and gallocatechin gallate (GCG) — for several days. They found that one in particular, EGC, boosted the activity of a key enzyme that promotes bone growth by up to 79 percent. EGC also significantly boosted levels of bone mineralization in the cells, which strengthens bones. The scientists also showed that high concentrations of ECG blocked the activity of a type of cell (osteoclast) that breaks down or weakens bones. The green tea components did not cause any toxic effects to the bone cells, they note.</p><br /><span class="fullpost"><br /></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-28882646413136347672009-10-08T20:55:00.001+07:002009-10-08T20:56:42.431+07:00Nobel Prize In Chemistry: What Ribosomes Look Like And How They Functions At Atomic LevelThe Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has decided to award the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 2009 jointly to Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Thomas A. Steitz, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA; and Ada E. Yonath, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel, "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome".<br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br /></span><p><strong>The ribosome translates the DNA code into life</strong></p> <p>The Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 2009 awards studies of one of life's core processes: the ribosome's translation of DNA information into life. Ribosomes produce proteins, which in turn control the chemistry in all living organisms. As ribosomes are crucial to life, they are also a major target for new antibiotics.</p> <p>This year's Nobel Prize in Chemistry awards Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas A. Steitz and Ada E. Yonath for having showed what the ribosome looks like and how it functions at the atomic level. All three have used a method called X-ray crystallography to map the position for each and every one of the hundreds of thousands of atoms that make up the ribosome.</p> <p>Inside every cell in all organisms, there are DNA molecules. They contain the blueprints for how a human being, a plant or a bacterium, looks and functions. But the DNA molecule is passive. If there was nothing else, there would be no life.</p> <p>The blueprints become transformed into living matter through the work of ribosomes. Based upon the information in DNA, ribosomes make proteins: oxygen-transporting haemoglobin, antibodies of the immune system, hormones such as insulin, the collagen of the skin, or enzymes that break down sugar. There are tens of thousands of proteins in the body and they all have different forms and functions. They build and control life at the chemical level.</p> <p>An understanding of the ribosome's innermost workings is important for a scientific understanding of life. This knowledge can be put to a practical and immediate use; many of today's antibiotics cure various diseases by blocking the function of bacterial ribosomes. Without functional ribosomes, bacteria cannot survive. This is why ribosomes are such an important target for new antibiotics.</p> <p>This year's three Laureates have all generated 3D models that show how different antibiotics bind to the ribosome. These models are now used by scientists in order to develop new antibiotics, directly assisting the saving of lives and decreasing humanity's suffering.</p><br /><span class="fullpost"><br /></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-27954540816057842762009-10-08T20:43:00.002+07:002009-10-08T20:47:02.009+07:00RESTORASI EKOSISTEM SUNGAI<meta equiv="CONTENT-TYPE" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><title></title><meta name="GENERATOR" content="OpenOffice.org 2.4 (Win32)"><style type="text/css"> <!-- @page { size: 21.59cm 27.94cm; margin: 2cm } P { margin-bottom: 0.21cm } --> </style> <p style="text-indent: 1.27cm; margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"> <span style="color:#000000;"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Sungai adalah suatu badan air yang mengalir ke satu arah. Air sungai dingin dan jernih serta mengandung sedikit sedimen dan makanan. Aliran air dan gelombang secara konstan memberikan oksigen pada air. Suhu air bervariasi sesuai dengan ketinggian dan garis lintang. </span></span></span> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"> Komunitas yang berada di sungai berbeda dengan danau. Air sungai yang mengalir deras tidak mendukung keberadaan komunitas plankton untuk berdiam diri, karena akan terbawa arus. Sebagai gantinya terjadi fotosintesis dari ganggang yang melekat dan tanaman berakar, sehingga dapat mendukung rantai makanan. </span></span></span> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Lingkungan perairan sungai terdiri dari komponen abiotik dan biotik (</span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>algal flora</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">) yang saling berinteraksi melalui arus energi dan daur hara (nutrien). Bila interaksi keduanya terganggu, maka akan terjadi perubahan atau gangguan yang menyebabkan ekosistem perairan itu menjadi tidak seimbang (Soylu dan Gönülol, 2003). Seperti halnya Sungai Ciliwung yang lahan di sekitar bantaran sungainya telah dimanfaatkan untuk permukiman dan aktivitas lainnya yaitu pertanian, industri, perkantoran dan perdagangan. Kegiatan pada lahan tersebut pada umumnya mengeluarkan limbah dan menghasilkan sampah yang langsung dibuang ke dalam perairan sungai sehingga masuknya sumber-sumber pencemar tersebut menyebabkan penurunan kualitas perairan (Hendrawan dkk., 2004). Buangan tersebut pada umumnya mengandung zat-zat yang bersifat racun yang menyebabkan deoksigenasi, naiknya temperatur, serta meningkatnya padatan tersuspensi, terlarut dan partikulat bahan organik. Masuknya limbah ke dalam perairan akan mengubah kondisi ekologi perairan dan komunitas di dalamnya (Stoddard dkk</span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>.</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">, 2003; Bledsoe dkk</span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>., </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">2004; Tuvikene dkk., 2005). </span></span> </p>
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<br /></span><meta equiv="CONTENT-TYPE" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><title></title><meta name="GENERATOR" content="OpenOffice.org 2.4 (Win32)"><style type="text/css"> <!-- @page { size: 21.59cm 27.94cm; margin: 2cm } P { margin-bottom: 0.21cm } --> </style> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Salah satu biota alga yaitu fitoplankton merupakan organisme yang mempunyai peranan besar dalam ekosistem perairan dan menjadi produsen primer (Lacerda dkk</span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>., </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">2004). Keberadaan fitoplankton dapat dijadikan sebagai bioindikator adanya perubahan lingkungan perairan yang disebabkan ketidakseimbangan suatu ekosistem akibat pencemaran (Oxborough dan Baker, 1997; Ekwu dan Sikoki, 2006). Analisis struktur, kemelimpahan dan model distribusi kemelimpahan fitoplankton juga dapat memberikan gambaran kondisi perairan Sungai Ciliwung (Fachrul, 2003).</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"> Sungai diibaratkan sebagai urat nadi dalam tubuh manusia, sementara air yang mengalir dalam urat nadi tersebut diumpamakan sebagai darah. Tanpa urat nadi, darah tidak mungkin mengirimkan berbagai zat makanan yang dibutuhkan oleh semua bagian tubuh manusia. Demikian juga tanpa sungai atau apabila sungai sudah tercemar maka manusia selain akan kesulitan untuk mendapatkan air yang layak, namun juga akan mahal. Sebagaimana yang sudah diketahui, DeSanto (1978) mengemukakan bahwa sekitar 70% tubuh manusia merupakan air dan setiap harinya manusia membutuhkan sekitar 1,5 L air untuk tetap </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>survive</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">, dan ekosistem daratan secara langsung tergantung pada air sebagai faktor yang menentukan struktur dan fungsi seluruh bioma di bumi. Sementera itu, Odum (1988) mengemukakan bahwa oleh karena air amat penting dan merupakan bagian terbesar dari protoplasma, maka dapatlah dikatakan bahwa semua kehidupan adalah ‘akuatik’.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"> Sungai tempat air mengalir dan membawa berbagai kebutuhan hidup manusia dan berbagai mahkluk lain yang dilaluinya, merupakan bagian dari ekosistem air tawar. Meskipun luasan sungai dan jumlah air yang mengalir di dalamnya sangat sedikit jika dibandingkan dengan luas dan jumlah air yang di laut, namun sungai memiliki peranan penting secara langsung bagi kehidupan manusia dan mahkluk di sekitarnya. Sungai, dalam sejarahnya, telah memberi manfaat besar bagi umat manusia, hingga kini. Selain sebagai sumber air, sungai juga bermanfaat sebagai sarana perhubungan, sumber tenaga (listrik dengan PLTA _Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Air), serta juga sebagai sumber pangan, karena menyimpan keragaman plasma nutfah.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="center">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:130%;"><b>Kerusakan pada Ekosistem Sungai</b></span></span></p> <p style="text-indent: 1.27cm; margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify" lang="fi-FI"> <span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Kondisi kualitas air yang terus cenderung menurun, juga disebabkan oleh masih adanya budaya di masyarakat Indonesia yang menganggap sungai dan danau sebagai tempat pembuangan sampah, limbah padat, cair, air limbah lainnya. Sehingga telah merusak lingkungan sungai di beberapa tempat dengan kondisi yang sangat mengkhawatirkan.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI">Musim di wilayah Indonesia merupakan faktor alam yang tidak dapat dirubah, namun kita hanya dapat berusaha untuk mengurangi efek yang merugikan. Kemungkinan efek negatif yang berpotensi untuk ditimbulkan oleh perubahan musim yaitu adanya kerusakan sumberdaya air baik pada musim kemarau maupun penghujan. Kondisi yang semakin memburuk karena hal tersebut, dapat dikurangi dengan melakukan suatu kegiatan untuk meningkatkan ketahanan. Dua faktor yang dapat dianggap sebagai pemicu terjadinya kerusakan sumberdaya air yaitu perubahan iklim dan kerusakan hutan.</span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify" lang="fi-FI"> <span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Perubahan iklim</b></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI">Karakteristik iklim suatu wilayah akan berpengaruh terhadap keberadaan sumberdaya air di wilayah tersebut, terutama untuk mengetahui periode kekurangan dan kelebihan pasokan air meteorologis. Unsur iklim yang perlu diperhatikan dalam kajian konservasi sumberdaya air meliputi agihan curah hujan tahunan dan agihan indeks kekeringan.</span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI">Disamping itu penyimpangan iklim global maupun regional juga berpengaruh pada rendahnya curah hujan musim kemarau pada wilayah-wilayah tertentu di Indonesia. Secara geografis, Indonesia terletak di wilayah iklim tropis dengan curah hujan rerata tahunan 2.900 mm/tahun (Suprapto, 2003). Masalah air terutama masalah banjir dan kekeringan merupakan dua hal yang selalu datang sesuai dengan datangnya musim. Hal ini terlihat dengan adanya kejadian kelangkaan atau defisit air pada musim kemarau dan terjadinya surplus air dalam bentuk banjir dan tanah longsor di musim hujan.</span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify" lang="fi-FI"> <span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Kerusakan hutan</b></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI">Kerusakan lahan berhutan, yang kerap terjadi di daerah dengan kelerengan curam, berpengaruh terhadap kerusakan ekosistem sungai, yang hulunya ke arah hutan. Ini terjadi karena dalam daur hidro-orologis terdapat suatu rantai perjalanan air: mulai saat hujan hingga bermuara ke laut. Kawasan hutan yang dikategorikan sebagai daerah tangkapan air hujan, merupakan bagian dari mata rantai itu. Sebab, hutan pada daerah perbukitan dan pergunungan berfungsi sebagai penyimpan cadangan air hujan, sekaligus penyarin yang bekerja secara alami. Proses penyaringan dari berbagai strata vegetasi, disertai kemampuan vegetasi menahan laju erosi lapisan atas tanah, mampu mengurangi gangguan pada ekosistem sungai secara alami pula.</span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI">Beberapa bencana seperti erosi, pendangkalan sungai di hilir, penurunan kualitas air sungai serta kepunahan spesies, terjadi karena hutan yang berada di hulu mengalami penggundulan. Jika dilakukan secara besar-besaran, akan mempengaruhi persediaan air tanah pada musim kemarau. Ini terkait dengan fungsi hutan sebagai kantung (penahan) air. Pada daerah yang gradien muka air tanahnya tinggi, daerah itu akan mudah kekurangan air di musim kemarau. Alasannya, permukaan air sungai lebih rendah dari permukaan air tanah.</span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI">Akibat penggundulan hutan (deforestasi), selain berdampak pada sungai, secara tidak langsung juga mempengaruhi pertumbuhan pohon dan tanaman. Sebab, kandungan lengas tanah yang seharusnya cukup, menjadi berkurang karena air hujan lebih sedikit yang terinfiltrasi ke dalam lapisan tanah. Pengaruh lebih luas adalah berkurangnya populasi ikan di sungai.</span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI">Beberapa jenis ikan kurang mampu beradaptasi karena terjadi perubahan habitat secara cepat. Perubahan intensitas penetrasi sinar matahari, oksigen, kandungan mineral dan tingkat keasaman (PH), adalah beberapa penyebabnya. Dengan berkurangnya populasi ikan, ini juga berdampak secara luas pada siklus rantai makanan. Populasi satwa, di antaranya, akan ikut berkurang karena kehilangan makanan.</span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"> Kerusakan hutan dan lahan pada bagian hulu merupakan penyebab utama terjadinya erosi dan sedimentasi pada alur-alur sungai alam sehingga mengurangi daya serap lahan terhadap air hujan. Hal ini menyebabkan terjadinya banjir tak terkontrol di musim penghujan dan kelangkaan air di musim kemarau. Kekeringan ini disebut sebagai kekeringan hidrologis dengan sistem penanganan yang tidak mudah dan kompleks. Data Balai Pemantapan Kawasan Hutan Jawa-Madura menggambarkan, kawasan hutan Jawa seluas 3.289.131 ha., saat ini kondisinya sangat memprihatinkan. Luas lahan di dalam kawasan hutan yang memerlukan rehabilitasi tercatat 1,714 juta ha (56,7 persen) dari luas seluruh kawsan hutan. Itu terdiri dari atas hutan lindung dan konservasi yang rusak seluas 567.315 ha serta hutan produksi tak berpohon seluas 1.147.116 ha. Kondisi ini diperparah oleh meluasnya lahan kritis di luar kawasan hutan yang telah mencapai 9,016 juta ha. Total lahan yang perlu direhabilitasi mencapai 10,731 juta ha atau 84,16 persen dari seluruh daratan Pulau Jawa.</span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="center" lang="fi-FI"> <span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:130%;"><b>Ekologi Restorasi</b></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:130%;"><span lang="fi-FI"><b> </b></span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI">Ekosistem yang rusak dan terdegradasi merupakan suatu kesempatan bagi ahli dan praktisi biologi untuk menerapkan hasil penelitian dalam upaya pemulihan spesiaes maupun komunitas yang pernah menghuni ekosistem tersebut di masa lalu. Pemulihan ekosistem yang rusak berpotensi besar untuk memperkuat sistem kawasan konservasi yang ada. Pemulihan ekologi (</span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"><i>ecological restoration</i></span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI">) merupakan praktik perbaikan, yang dapat didefinisikan sebagai proses yang secara sengaja mengubah (keadaan lingkungan) suatu lokasi untuk membentuk kembali suatu ekosistem tertentu yang bersifat asli dan bernilai sejarah. Tujuan dari proses (restorasi) tersebut adalah mengembalikan struktur, fungsi, keanekaragaman serta dinamika dari ekosistem terkait (Society of Ecological Restoration, 1991). Disamping berperan menunjang strategi konservasi, proyek restorasi membuka kesempatan penyususnan kembali komunitas secara utuh, dengan mempertimbangkan fungsi ekosistem terkait (Callaway dkk., 2003).</span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"> Ekosistem dapat dirusak oleh bencana alam, misalnya oleh badai atau kebakaran yang disebabkan oleh petir. Namun, melalui proses suksesi alami pada umumnya ekosistem masih dapat memulihkan struktur komunitas asli setempat bahkan dengan komposisi spesies yang serupa dengan asalnya. Bagaimanapun, seringkali kualitas ekosistem yang dirusak oleh kegiatan manusia telah menurun sedemikian rendah sehingga sulit dipulihkan. Pemulihan alami mungkin tertunda hingga beberapa dekade atau bahkan berabad – abad. Pemulihanpun tidak dapat berjalan dengan baik bila penyebabnya masih ada dalam ekosistem.</span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"> Habitat baru umumnya dibentuk untuk menggantikan habitat yang telah rusak di tempat lain. Pembentukan habitat baru yang memiliki komposisi spesies dan fungsi ekosistem yang setara dengan lokasi acuan (</span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI"><i>references sites</i></span></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span lang="fi-FI">) seringkali menjadi tujuan utama restorasi (MacDougall dkk., 2004). Terdapat 4 macam pendekatan yang sering digunakan untuk mengembalikan ekosistem dan komunitas hayati (Whisenant, 1999):</span></span></span></p> <ol><li><p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Tanpa tindakan (</span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>no ction</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">) : restorasi tidak dilakukan mengingat biaya pemulihan yang terlalu mahal, atau mungkin upaya restorasi sebelumnya gagal, ataupun berdasarkan pengalaman diperkirakan ekosistem dapat pulih kembali dengan sendirinya.</span></span></p> </li><li><p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Rehabilitasi : ekosistem yang rusak diganti dengan ekosistem yang produktif, baik dengan menggunakan beberapa spesies maupun banyak jenis biota.</span></span></p> </li><li><p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Restorasi parsial (sebagian) : yang diperbaili adalah sebagian fungsi ekosistem, dan beberapa spesies asli yang dominan mungkin dapat dikembalikan pula.</span></span></p> </li><li><p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Restorasi lengkap : restorasi suatu daerah hingga mencapai struktur dan komposisi spesies semula, maupun berbagai proses ekosistem terkait.</span></span></p> </li></ol> <p style="margin-left: 1.27cm; margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"> Wilayah lahan basah seperti sungai telah menjadi sasaran upaya restorasi besar – besaran (Zedler, 1996; Rood dkk., 2003). Sungai sering dirusak karena peranan mereka dalam mengendalikan banjir, mempertahankan kualitas air, dan melestarikan komunitas hayati tidak diketahui ataupun kurang dihargai. Lebih dari setengah lahan basah asli di AS telah hilang terutama di wilayah dengan tingkat populasi tinggi seperti kalifornia, yang kehilangan lebih dari 90% lahan basahny (Cairns & Heckman, 1996). Di AS telah dilakukan kebijakan perlindungan lahan basah melalui UU Air Bersih (</span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Clean Water Act</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">) dan kebijakan pemerintah AS untuk tidak menghilangkan lahan basah secara efektif (</span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>no net loss of wetlands</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">). Berbagai proyek pembangunan skala besar yang mengakibatkan kerusakan diharuskan mereparasi lahan basah tersebut, dan bila kerusakan yang ditimbulkan tidak dapat dimitigasi (kegiatan membangun lingkungan baru), pihak pengembang atau pengelola diharuskan menciptakan lahan basah baru untuk menggantikan yang telah rusak. Focus dari upaya tersebut biasanya adalah mengkonstruksi hidrologi asli wilayah setempat, dilanjutkan upaya menanam spesies asli setempat. Pengalaman menunjukkan bahwa upaya merestorasi lahan basah seringkali tidak berhasil mengembalikan komposisi spesies maupun karakteristik hidrologi dari wilayah setempat, atau tidak sesuai dengan standar yang telah ditetapkan dalam lokasi acuan. Masalahnya, komposisi spesies, pergerakan air, tanah, serta sejarah dari lokasi sulit untuk dikembalikan. Akibatnya, spesies asing seringkali mendominasi lahan basah yang direstorasi. Bagaimanapun, lahan basah yang direstorasi mungkin masih dapat mempertahankan sebagian spesies asli setempat (atau yang mirip spesies setempat), sehingga masih dapat memberikan sebagian manfaat dan fungsi mereka. Pada ekosistem sungai salah satu strategi yang dapat digunakan untuk memperbaiki keanekaragaman hayati adalah menghilangkan seluruh bendungan dan dam serta pengendalian dan pelepasan debet air dari dam (Stanley & Doyle, 2003).</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"> Upaya untuk memulihkan sungai yang mengalami eutrofikasi (pengayaan unsure hara) ditandai dengan buruknya kualitas air, terjadi ledakan algae, menurunnya populasi ikan setempat, dan menipisnya oksigen di lapisan air dalam.upaya dilakukan dengan membangun fasilitas pengolahan limbah. Kuantitas fosfor yang masuk ke sungai dikurangi jumlahnya. Hasilnya kualitas air membaik, dan jumlah ikan predator asli mulai meningkat, dibantu pasokan oleh pemerintah daerah. Ikan predator tersebut berperan sebagai pemangsa ikan yang lebih kecil. Dengan terkendalinya jumlah ikan yang lebih kecil tersebut, maka jumlah zooplankton meningkat dan semakin banyak memangsa alga, sehingga kualitas air dapat meningkat. Dengan demikian, melalui proses pemangsaan sepanjang rantai makanan, ikan predator turut mengendalikan jumlah alga penyebab eutrofikasi. </span></span> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%; page-break-before: always;" align="center"> <span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:130%;"><b>Daftar Pustaka</b></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Bledsoe, E., E.J. Phlips, C.E. Jett, and K.A. Donnelly. 2004. The relationships among phytoplankton biomass, nutrient loading and hydrodinamics in an inner shelf estuary. </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Ophelia </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">58 (1): 20-47.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">DeSanto, R.S. 1978. Concepts of applied ecology. Springer-Verlag. New York.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Ekwu, A.O. and F.D. Sikoki. 2006. Phytoplankton diversity in the cross river estuary of Nigeria, </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Journal of Applied Sciences </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">& </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Environmental Management </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">10 (1): 89-95.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Fachrul, M.F. 2003. Kajian biologi monitoring pencemaran sungai</span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>. Seminar Nasional Sistem Monitoring Pencemaran Lingkungan Sungai dan Teknologi Pengolahannya. </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Pusat Penelitian Elektronika dan Telekomunikasi-LIPI, Bandung, 8-9 July 2003.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Hendrawan, D., M.F. Melati, and B. Bestari. 2004. Kajian Kualitas Perairan Sungai Ciliwung, </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Jurnal Penelitian dan Karya Ilmiah Lemlit Usakti </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">3 (15): 54-66.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Lacerda, S R., M.L. Koening, S. Neumann-Leitão, and M.J. Flores-Montes. 2004. Phytoplankton Nyctemeral variation at a tropical river estuary (Itamaracá-Pernambuco-Brazil). </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Brazilian Journal of Biology 64 </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">(1): 81-94.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">MacDougall, A.S., B.R. Beckwith, & C.Y. Maslovat. 2004. Defining conservation strategis with historical perspectives: a case study from a degraded oak grassland system. </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Conservation Biology</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"> 18: 445 - 465</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Odum, E.P. 1988. Dasar-dasar ekologi. (Terjemahan) Edisi 3. Gadjah Mada UNiv. Press. Yogyakarta.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Oxborough, K. and N.R. Baker. 1997. Resolving chlorophyll </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>a </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">fluorescence images of photosynthetic efficiency into photochemical and nonphotochemical components- calculation of </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>qP </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">and </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Fv</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">0/</span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Fm</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">0 without measuring </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Fo-. Photosynthesis Research </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">54: 135- 142.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Soylu, E.N., and A. Gönülol. 2003. Phytoplankton and seasonal variations of the River Ye ilırmak, Amasya, Turkey. </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">3: 17-24</span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>.</i></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Stoddard, A., J.B. Harcum, J.T. Simpson, J.R. Pagenkopf, and R.K. Bastian. 2003, </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Municipal Wastewater Treatment: Evaluating Improvements in National Water Quality</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">. Published by John Wiley and Sons, Inc.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Tuvikene, A., K. Piirsoo, and Pall. 2005. Effect of nutrient load on the planktonic biota in the River Narva drainage area. </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>In </i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Russo, R. C. (ed.), 2005. </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Modelling Nutrient Loads and Responses in River and Estuary Systems</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">. Report No. 271. Brussels: Committee on the Challenges at Modern Society, NATO.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Zedler, J.B. 1996. Ecological issues in wetland mitigation : An introduction to the forum. </span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i>Ecological Aplication</i></span></span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size:100%;"> 6:33 – 37.</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 150%;" align="justify">
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<br /></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-82937912354680222272009-06-19T22:07:00.005+07:002009-06-19T22:24:32.476+07:00Urban Myth Disproved: Fingerprints Do Not Improve Grip Friction<div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SjuqNhic8GI/AAAAAAAAARM/ZgXWjiYgFh4/s1600-h/090612092729.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 300px; height: 199px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SjuqNhic8GI/AAAAAAAAARM/ZgXWjiYgFh4/s320/090612092729.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5349056131750490210" border="0" /></a><br /></div>Fingerprints mark us out as individuals and leave telltale signs of our presence on every object that we touch, but what are fingerprints really for? According to Roland Ennos, from the University of Manchester, other primates and tree-climbing koalas have fingerprints and some South American monkeys have ridged pads on their tree-gripping tails, so everyone presumed that fingerprints are there to help us hang onto objects that we grasp.<br /><br /><br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br /><br /><br /></span><p>This theory that fingerprints increase friction between the skin and whatever we grab onto has been around for over 100 years, but no one had directly tested the idea. Having already figured out why we have fingernails, Ennos was keen to find out whether fingerprints improve our grip, so he recruited Manchester undergraduate Peter Warman to test out fingerprint friction.</p> <p>Because the friction between two solid materials is usually related to the force of one of the materials pressing against the other, Ennos and Warman had to find a way of pushing a piece of acrylic glass (Perspex®) against Warman's finger before pulling the Perspex® along the student's finger to measure the amount of friction between the two. Ennos designed a system that could produce forces ranging from a gentle touch to a tight grip, and then Warman strapped his index finger into the machine to begin measuring his fingerprint's friction.</p> <p>But after days of dragging the Perspex® along Warman's fingers and thumbs, it was clear that something wasn't quite right. Instead of the friction between each finger and the Perspex® increasing in proportion to the amount that the Perspex® pushed against Warman's fingers, it increased by a smaller fraction than Ennos had expected. Ennos realised that instead of behaving like a normal solid, the skin was behaving like rubber, where the friction is proportional to the contact area between the two surfaces.</p> <p>To check that skin behaves more like rubber than a normal solid, the duo varied the area of each fingerpad that came into contact with the surface by dragging narrow and wide strips of Perspex® along Warman's fingerpads. They found that the friction did increase as more of the fingerprint came in contact with the surface, so the skin was behaving just like rubber.</p> <p>Finally, the friction issue was clinched when Warman measured his fingerprints' surface area. The area of skin in contact with the Perspex® was always 33% less than if the fingerpads were smooth resulting in the maximum contact area. Fingerprints definitely don't improve a grip's friction because they reduce our skin's contact with objects that we hold, and even seem to loosen our grip in some circumstances.</p> So if fingerprints don't tighten our grasp on smooth surfaces, what are they for? Ennos explains that our fingerprints may function in other ways. They might have evolved to grip onto rough surfaces, like tree bark; the ridges may allow our skin to stretch and deform more easily, protecting it from damage; or they may allow water trapped between our finger pads and the surface to drain away and improve surface contact in wet conditions. Other researchers have suggested that the ridges could increase our fingerpads' touch sensitivity. Whatever our fingerprints are for, it seems that the idea that they provide friction for grip is just another urban myth<br /><span class="fullpost"><br /></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-70364137084064315872009-06-19T21:58:00.005+07:002009-06-19T22:20:59.561+07:00Biology - The Study of Life<div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SjupMvSYLvI/AAAAAAAAARE/dM5v0kIWqzc/s1600-h/2261_800x600.jpg"><img style="cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 240px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SjupMvSYLvI/AAAAAAAAARE/dM5v0kIWqzc/s320/2261_800x600.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5349055018749669106" border="0" /></a><br /></div>What is biology? Simply put, it is the study of life -- life in all of its grandeur. From the very small algae to the very large elephant, life has a certain wonder about it. With that in mind, how do we know if something is living? <a href="http://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/yellowstone/viruslive.html" onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')">Is a virus alive</a> or dead? What are the characteristics of life? These are all very important questions with equally important answers.<br /><br /><br /><blink>...<br /><br /><br /><br /></blink><span style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0); font-weight: bold;">Characteristics of Life</span><br /><br />Living things include both the visible world of animals and plants, as well as the invisible world of <a href="http://biology.about.com/cs/bacteriology/a/aa032504a.htm">bacteria</a>. On a basic level, we can say that life is ordered. Organisms have an enormously complex organization. We're all familiar with the intricate systems of the basic unit of life, the <a href="http://biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa031600a.htm">cell</a>.<br /><br />Life can also "work." No, not the daily employment variety, but living creatures can take in energy from the environment. This energy, in the form of food, is transformed to maintain <a href="http://biology.about.com/od/cellularprocesses/">metabolic processes</a> and for survival.<br /><br />Life grows and develops. This means more than just getting larger in size. Living organisms also have the ability to rebuild and repair themselves when injured.<br /><br />Life can <a href="http://biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa091400a.htm">reproduce</a>. Have you ever seen dirt reproduce? I don't think so. Life can only come from other living creatures.<br /><br />Life can respond. Think about the last time you accidentally stubbed your toe. Almost instantly, you flinched back in pain. Life is characterized by this response to stimuli.<br /><br />Finally, life can adapt and respond to the demands placed on it by the environment. There are three basic types of adaptations that can occur in higher organisms. <ul><li>Reversible changes occur as a response to changes in the environment. Let's say you live near sea level and you travel to a mountainous area. You may begin to experience difficulty breathing and an increase in heart rate as a result of the change in altitude. These symptoms go away when you go back down to sea level. </li><br /><li>Somatic changes occur as a result of prolonged changes in the environment. Using the previous example, if you were to stay in the mountainous area for a long time, you would notice that your heart rate would begin to slow down and you would begin to breath normally. Somatic changes are also reversible.</li><br /><li>The final type of adaptation is called genotypic (caused by mutation). These changes take place within the genetic makeup of the organism and are not reversible. An example would be the development of resistance to pesticides by insects and spiders.</li></ul> In summary, life is organized, "works," grows, reproduces, responds to stimuli and adapts. These characteristics form the basis of the study of biology.<br /><br /><b style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0);">Basic Principles of Biology</b><br /><br />The foundation of biology as it exists today is based on five basic principles. They are the cell theory, gene theory, evolution, homeostasis, and laws of thermodynamics. <ul><li><a href="http://biology.about.com/od/biologydictionary/g/celltheory.htm">Cell Theory</a>: all living organisms are composed of cells. The cell is the basic unit of life.<br /><br /></li><li><a href="http://biology.about.com/od/geneticsglossary/g/genetheory.htm">Gene Theory</a>: traits are inherited through gene transmission. Genes are located on chromosomes and consist of <a href="http://biology.about.com/od/biologysciencefair/a/aa102005a.htm">DNA</a>.<br /><br /></li><li><a href="http://biology.about.com/od/evolution/a/aa110207a.htm">Evolution</a>: any genetic change in a population that is inherited over several generations. These changes may be small or large, noticeable or not so noticeable.<br /><br /></li><li><a href="http://biology.about.com/od/biologydictionary/g/homeostasis.htm">Homeostasis</a>: ability to maintain a constant internal environment in response to environmental changes.<br /><br /></li><li><a href="http://biology.about.com/od/biologydictionary/g/thermodynamics.htm">Thermodynamics</a>: energy is constant and energy transformation is not completely efficient. </li></ul> <b style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0);">Subdiciplines of Biology</b><br /><br />The field of biology is very broad in scope and can be divided into several disciplines. In the most general sense, these disciplines are categorized based on the type of organism studied. For example, zoology deals with animal studies, botany deals with plant studies, and microbiology is the study of microorganisms. These fields of study can be broken down further into several specialized sub-disciplines. Some of which include <a href="http://biology.about.com/od/biologydictionary/g/anatomy.htm">anatomy</a>, <a href="http://biology.about.com/od/cellbiology/a/cellbiology.htm">cell biology</a>, <a href="http://biology.about.com/od/basicgenetics/a/aa071705a.htm">genetics</a>, and <a href="http://biology.about.com/od/biologydictionary/g/physiology.htm">physiology</a>.<br /><span class="fullpost"><br /></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-90533705412903893772009-06-10T11:55:00.003+07:002009-06-10T12:01:32.471+07:00How Proteins Find The Right DNA Sequences<p align="center"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Si89-ZAJDPI/AAAAAAAAAQ8/8xYvSBNyzKQ/s1600-h/090316092008-large.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5345559424784731378" style="WIDTH: 320px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 317px" alt="" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Si89-ZAJDPI/AAAAAAAAAQ8/8xYvSBNyzKQ/s320/090316092008-large.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><div align="center"> <span style="font-size:78%;color:#ff0000;">Illustration of how proteins find the right DNA sequences. (Credit: Image courtesy of Uppsala University)</span></div><br /><br />Researchers at Uppsala University and Harvard University have collaboratively developed a new theoretical model to explain how proteins can rapidly find specific DNA sequences, even though there are many obstacles in the way on the chromosomes.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />In living cells, DNA-binding proteins regulate the activity of various genes so that different cells carry out the right tasks at the right time. For this to work, the DNA-binding proteins need to find the right DNA site sufficiently quickly. The research team behind the new study has previously succeeded in determining that it takes only a few minutes for an individual protein molecule to look through the millions of nearly identical binding alternatives and find the right place to bind. This is nevertheless slower than what is predicted by the established theoretical model for how DNA-binding proteins find their way to the proper place by alternating between diffusing in the cell cytoplasm and along DNA strands.<br />"By also taking into consideration the fact that there are many obstacles in the way when proteins are to diffuse along DNA strands, we can now calculate more exactly how long it takes them to find their way," says Johan Elf, associate professor of molecular biotechnology at the Center for Bioinformatics.<br />Besides offering a more precise prediction regarding the time needed to find the right site on DNA, the new theoretical model explains why there is an optimal total concentration of DNA-binding proteins. If there were more, it would simply be impossible for them to find a binding place in a reasonable time, since the proteins would be in each other's way. If there were fewer it would go slower as well, since not enough proteins would be searching. Finally, the new model provides an explanation why so many DNA-binding proteins also bind auxiliary binding sites close to the regulatory site, thus forming DNA loops. It turns out that this can shorten the time to find the right sites.<br />"This more detailed understanding of gene regulation is important, since it can ultimately provide a better understanding of diseases that occur as a result of problems in the control functions of cells, such as in cancer" says Johan Elf.<br />The researchers behind the study are Gene-Wei Li, Otto G. Berg, and Johan Elf. The findings are being published March 16 in the scientific journal Nature Physics.<br /></span><span class="fullpost"></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-62392983581796377602009-06-10T11:52:00.001+07:002009-06-10T11:53:34.292+07:00New Antibiotics Could Come From A DNA Binding Compound That Kills Bacteria In 2 Minutes<blink>A synthetic DNA binding compound has proved surprisingly effective at binding to the DNA of bacteria and killing all the bacteria it touched within two minutes. The DNA binding properties of the compound were first discovered in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Warwick by Professor Mike Hannon and Professor Alison Rodger (Professor Mike Hannon is now at the University of Birmingham). However the strength of its antibiotic powers have now made it a compound of high interest for University of Warwick researchers working on the development of novel antibiotics.</blink><br /><blink></blink><br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />Dr Adair Richards from the University of Warwick said: "This research will assist the design of new compounds that can attack bacteria in a highly effective way which gets around the methods bacteria have developed to resist our current antibacterial drugs. As this antibiotic compound operates by targeting DNA, it should avoid all current resistance mechanisms of multi-resistant bacteria such as MRSA."<br />The compound [Fe2L3]4+ is an iron triple helicate with three organic strands wrapped around two iron centres to give a helix which looks cylindrical in shape and neatly fits within the major groove of a DNA helix. It is about the same size as the parts of a protein that recognise and bind with particular sequences of DNA. The high positive charge of the compound enhances its ability to bind to DNA which is negatively charged.<br />When the iron-helicate binds to the major groove of DNA it coils the DNA so that it is no longer available to bind to anything else and is not able to drive biological or chemical processes. Initially the researchers focused on the application of this useful property for targeting the DNA of cancer cells as it could bind to, coil up and shut down the cancer cell's DNA either killing the cell or stopping it replicate. However the team quickly realised that it might also be a very clever way of targeting drug-resistant bacteria.<br />New research at the University of Warwick, led by Dr Adair Richards and Dr Albert Bolhuis, has now found that the [Fe2L3]4+ does indeed have a powerful effect on bacteria. When introduced to two test bacteria Bacillus subtilis and E. coli they found that it quickly bound to the bacteria's DNA and killed virtually every cell within two minutes of being introduced - though the concentration required for this is high.<br />Professor Alison Rodger, Professor of Biophysical Chemistry at the University of Warwick, said: "We were surprised at how quickly this compound killed bacteria and these results make this compound a key lead compound for researchers working on the development of novel antibiotics to target drug resistant bacteria."<br />The researchers will next try and understand how and why the compound can cross the bacteria cell wall and membranes. They plan to test a wide range of compounds to look for relatives of the iron helicate that have the same mechanism for action in collaboration with researchers around the world.<br /><br /><br /></span><span class="fullpost"></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-33855114387796929812009-06-10T11:39:00.003+07:002009-06-10T11:45:31.349+07:00Glutamate Receptor Believed Dead Comes To Life<p align="center"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Si86N1magPI/AAAAAAAAAQ0/UVF40RjelGs/s1600-h/090609073152.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5345555292112978162" style="WIDTH: 300px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 147px" alt="" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Si86N1magPI/AAAAAAAAAQ0/UVF40RjelGs/s320/090609073152.jpg" border="0" /></a></p><div align="center"> <blink><span style="font-size:78%;"><span style="color:#33ccff;">Schematic presentation of the exchange of the delta2 receptor's intrinsic ligand recognition site (red). The recognition site from another glutamate receptor (blue) enables conversion of chemical into electrical signals: the reputedly dead ion channel springs to life. (Credit: Image courtesy of Ruhr-Universitaet-Bochum</span>)</span></blink></div><br /><br /><blink>To all intents and purposes, the delta2 receptor is an unequivocal member of the family of glutamate receptors, the most important receptors for excitatory neurotransmitters in our brain. To date, however, this receptor has been considered the “black sheep” of the family because it does not react to glutamate, which, by definition, a glutamate receptor ought to do.</blink><br /><br /><br /><blink>This riddle fascinated the neuroscientists working with Prof. Michael Hollmann (Chair of Biochemistry I – Receptor Biochemistry) at the Ruhr University.<br />To unlock the secret of this receptor, they “crossed” it with another glutamate receptor that functions normally. The resulting chimera is functional and opens an ion channel. The task now at hand is to identify a transmitter that triggers this mechanism in an unchanged, physiological delta2 receptor. The scientists have published their observations in the current edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA (PNAS).</blink><br /><br /><br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br /><strong>Lively communication between brain cells</strong></span><br /><span class="fullpost"><strong></strong><br /><br /><br />Our brain consists of a gigantic network of about 100 billion neurons. Every one of them is linked to other neurons by more than ten thousand contact sites. The universal language within this network consist of electrical impulses, the sum of which lead to the development of our world of thought in a hitherto completely unknown manner. The majority of contacts between neurons are not direct, as a few millionth of a cm separate the cells from one another. This distance must be overcome if a signal from a transmitting cell is to reach a receptor cell.<br />This occurs at special contact sites, so-called synapses, which conduct incoming signals with the assistance of a chemical messenger, a so-called neurotransmitter. The activated transmitting cell discharges the messenger, which then crosses the synaptic cleft and is recognized by the receiving cell. This is where the glutamate receptors come into play. Protruding from the plasma membrane into the synaptic cleft they are specialized in registering the messenger most frequently found in the brain, namely glutamate – the well-known flavor enhancer in Chinese dishes, and subsequently convert the chemical signal into an electrical signal.<br /><br /><br /><br /><strong>Conversion of chemical into electrical signals</strong><br /><strong></strong><br /><br /><br />Key to the secret of conversion of chemical into electrical signals is the structure of the receptors. They consist of three important parts: a glutamate recognition site, a joint, and a channel. The extracellular, bipartite recognition site protruding from the plasma membrane recognizes glutamate, binds it and then snaps shut like a mouse trap. Via a sophisticated joint mechanism, this closing movement is transmitted to the channel that traverses the cell membrane and causes the channel to open. Positive ions that have accumulated outside the cell can now flow into it and thereby generate an electrical signal.<br /><br /><br /><br /><strong>Important but mysterious role</strong><br /><strong></strong><br /><br /><br />The delta2 receptor also has the three elements discussed above. Why then is it not activated by glutamate? Prof. Hollmann summarizes the problem by stating: "We know that the delta2 receptor is located at specific sites within the cerebellum, that it plays an extremely important role for the fine coordination of motor behaviour, and that it evidently contributes to the correct circuitry of the neurons during development of the cerebellum. What we don't know is just how the receptor fulfils these functions". The scientists thus decided to pursue the principal question whether the delta2 receptor is at all capable of functioning in a manner similar to that of the other glutamate receptors, namely as a neurotransmitter-activated ion channel.<br /><br /><br /><br /><strong>Greek mythology helps</strong><br /><br /><br /><br />To answer this question the scientists recalled a very old idea: they produced a chimerical receptor. In Greek mythology, the chimera is a monstrous figure with a lion’s head, the body of a goat, and a snake's tail. Within the framework of her dissertation at the IGSN (International Graduate School of Neuroscience), Sabine Schmid created a chimeric delta2 receptor with the joint and channel of the delta2 receptor, but the ligand recognition site transplanted from a normally functioning relative.<br />This chimeric receptor did indeed react to glutamate and opened its ion channel, which had previously been belived to be dead. Prof. Hollmann comments: "We thus have developed a tool that, for the first time, enables us to investigate of the unique properties of the joint and the ion channel of the delta2 receptor. Moreover, our results suggest that the secret of the delta2 receptor is to be found in the difference in its recognition site for neurotransmitters". To a certain degree, the scientists have thus managed to unveil the function of the “black sheep.” The next step is to determine to which signal the actual recognition site of the delta2 receptor reacts and which role this plays for its essential function in the cerebellum.<br /><br /></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-81305966176383347102009-06-10T11:31:00.004+07:002009-06-10T11:37:45.893+07:00Circadian Rhythm: How Cells Tell TimeThe fuzzy pale mold that lines the glass tubes in Dr. Yi Liu’s lab doesn’t look much like a clock.<br />But this fungus has an internal, cell-based timekeeper nearly as sophisticated as a human’s, allowing UT Southwestern Medical Center physiologists to study easily the biochemistry and genetics of body clocks, or circadian rhythms.<br />In a new study appearing online this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Dr. Liu and his co-workers have found that this mold, which uses a protein called FRQ as the main gear of its clock, marks time by a sequence of changes in the protein’s chemical structure.<br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />Dr. Liu said the new finding might someday help researchers develop treatments for human sleep disorders and other problems associated with a faulty biological clock.<br />“This timekeeping protein is really the core component of the circadian clock,” said Dr. Liu, professor of physiology at UT Southwestern and senior author of the study.<br />Despite the evolutionary distance from mold to man, mechanisms controlling their circadian clocks are very similar. In both, circadian rhythms control many biological processes, including cell division, hormonal release, sleep/wake cycles, body temperature and brain activity.<br />The researchers employed a fungus called Neurospora, an organism frequently used in studies on genetics and cell processes, especially circadian rhythms. It reproduces in the dark and rests in the light.<br />A decade ago, Dr. Liu discovered that FRQ controlled the cellular clock in Neurospora by chemical changes of its protein structure. As the day goes on, the cell adds chemical bits called phosphates to the protein. Each new phosphate acts like a clock’s ticking, letting the cell know that more time has passed.<br />When the number of phosphates added to FRQ reaches a certain threshold, the cell breaks it down, ready to start the cycle again.<br />The researchers, however, did not know where the phosphates attached to FRQ, how many got added throughout a day, or how they affected the protein’s ability to “tell” time.<br />In the current study, the researchers used purified FRQ to analyze the specific sites where phosphate groups attach. In all, the researchers found 76 phosphate docking sites.<br />“This is an extremely high number,” Dr. Liu said. “Most proteins are controlled by only a handful of phosphate sites.”<br />They also studied how these phosphates are added to FRQ daily and found that two enzymes are responsible for adding most of the phosphate groups in Neurospora. They also found that the total number of phosphates oscillates robustly day by day.<br />In addition, the researchers created a series of mutations in many of the phosphate docking sites, creating strains of mold that had abnormally short or long daily clocks.<br />In upcoming studies, the researchers plan to identify which enzymes add phosphates to specific sites and exactly how changes in a particular site affect a cell’s clock.<br />Other UT Southwestern physiology researchers contributing to the work were co-lead authors Dr. Chi-Tai Tang, postdoctoral researcher, and Dr. Shaojie Li, former postdoctoral researcher; Dr. Joonseok Cha, postdoctoral fellow; Dr. Guocun Huang, assistant instructor; and Dr. Lily Li, former postdoctoral researcher. Researchers from the National Institute of Biological Sciences in China and the Chinese Academy of Sciences also participated.<br />The study was supported by the National Institutes of Health and the Welch Foundation.<br /><br /><br /></span><span class="fullpost"></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-67228348268712473292009-06-10T11:23:00.002+07:002009-06-10T11:26:01.911+07:00Stem Cells Cultured On Contact Lens Restore Sight In Patients With Blinding Corneal Disease<blink>In a world-first breakthrough, University of New South Wales (UNSW) medical researchers have used stem cells cultured on a simple contact lens to restore sight to sufferers of blinding corneal disease.</blink><br /><blink></blink><br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />Sight was significantly improved within weeks of the procedure, which is simple, inexpensive and requires a minimal hospital stay.<br />The research team from UNSW’s School of Medical Sciences harvested stem cells from patients’ own eyes to rehabilitate the damaged cornea. The stem cells were cultured on a common therapeutic contact lens which was then placed onto the damaged cornea for 10 days, during which the cells were able to re-colonise the damaged eye surface.<br />While the novel procedure was used to rehabilitate damaged corneas, the researchers say it offers hope to people with a range of blinding eye conditions and could have applications in other organs.<br />A paper detailing the breakthrough appears in the journal Transplantation this week.<br />The trial was conducted on three patients; two with extensive corneal damage resulting from multiple surgeries to remove ocular melanomas, and one with the genetic eye condition aniridia. Other causes of cornea damage can include chemical or thermal burns, bacterial infection and chemotherapy.<br />“The procedure is totally simple and cheap,” said lead author of the study, UNSW’s Dr Nick Di Girolamo. “Unlike other techniques, it requires no foreign human or animal products, only the patient’s own serum, and is completely non-invasive.<br />The surgeon who carried out the procedure and managed the patients was UNSW senior lecturer, Dr Stephanie Watson.<br />"The operation is relatively non-invasive. The patient merely comes into the hospital for a couple of hours to have their eye prepared and the lens put in place, and then they're able to go home," she said.<br />“There’s no suturing, there is no major operation: all that’s involved is harvesting a minute amount – less than a millimeter – of tissue from the ocular surface,” said Dr Di Girolamo.<br />“If you’re going to be treating these sorts of diseases in third world countries all you need is the surgeon and a lab for cell culture. You don’t need any fancy equipment.”<br />Because the procedure uses the patient’s own stem cells harvested from their eye, it is ideal for sufferers of unilateral eye disease. However, it also works in patients who have had both eyes damaged, Dr Di Girolamo said.<br />“One of our patients had aniridia, a congenital condition affecting both eyes. In that case, instead of taking the stem cells from the other cornea, we took them from another part of the eye altogether – the conjunctiva – which also harbours stem cells.<br />“The stem cells were able to change from the conjunctival phenotype to a corneal phenotype after we put them onto the cornea. That’s the beauty of stem cells,” Dr Di Girolamo said.<br />The therapeutic contact lens used in the trial was of a type commonly used worldwide after ocular surface surgery. However, of the several brands on the market, only one was suitable for growing the stem cells.<br />“We don’t know why. It’s probably to do with the components the manufacturers have used in that particular lens,” Dr Di Girolamo said.<br />The researchers are hopeful the technique can be adapted for use in other parts of the eye, such as the retina, and even in other organs. “If we can do this procedure in the eye, I don’t see why it wouldn’t work in other major organs such as the skin, which behaves in a very similar way to the cornea,” Dr Di Girolamo said.<br /><br /><br /></span><span class="fullpost"></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-13459291315027650532009-06-10T11:05:00.003+07:002009-06-10T11:20:44.026+07:00Bacteria and Food PoisoningThe U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that around 80 million people a year in the U.S. alone contract food poisoning or other foodborne diseases.<br />Foodborne illness is caused by eating or drinking food that contains disease causing agents. The most common causes of foodborne diseases are bacteria, <a href="http://biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa110200a.htm">viruses</a>, and parasites. Foods containing toxic chemicals can cause foodborne diseases as well.<br />There are over two hundred types of bacteria, viruses and parasites that can cause foodborne diseases. Reactions to these germs can range from mild gastric discomfort to death. The easiest way to <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/fttclean.html">prevent foodborne illness</a> is to properly handle and cook foods. This includes washing your hands and utensils carefully and cooking meat thoroughly.<br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />Below is a list of a few bacteria that cause foodborne diseases, along with the foods that are associated with them, as well as symptoms that are likely to develop from ingesting the contaminated foods.</span><br /><span class="fullpost"><strong>Bacteria and Food Poisoning<br /></strong>Microbe - <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://hmsc.oregonstate.edu/classes/MB492/hydrophilahayes/">Aeromonas hydrophila</a><br />Affiliated Foods - Fish, Shellfish, Beef, Pork, Lamb, and Poultry</span><br /><span class="fullpost">Diseases - Gastroenteritis, Septicemia<br />Symptoms - Diarrhea, Blood and Mucus in Stool</span><br /><span class="fullpost"><br />Microbe - <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://textbookofbacteriology.net/B.cereus.html">Bacillus cereu</a><br />Affiliated Foods - Meats, Milk, Rice, Potato, and Cheese Products<br />Diseases - B. cereus Food Poisoning<br />Symptoms - Diarrhea, Abdominal Cramps, Nausea<br /><br />Microbe - <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol5no1/altekruse.htm">Campylobacter jejuni</a><br />Affiliated Foods - Raw Chicken, Unpasteurized Milk, Non-chlorinated Water<br />Diseases - B. cereus Campylobacteriosis<br />Symptoms - Diarrhea, Abdominal Cramps, Nausea and Fever, Headache and Muscle Pain<br /><br />Microbe - <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/botulism_g.htm">Clostridium botulinum</a><br />Affiliated Foods - Canned Foods Including: Vegetables, Meats, and Soups<br />Diseases - Foodborne Botulism<br />Symptoms - Weakness, Double Vision and Vertigo, Difficulty in Speaking, Swallowing, and Breathing, Constipation<br /><br />Microbe - <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/general/resrpt1998/clostridium.html">Clostridium perfringens</a><br />Affiliated Foods - Non-refrigerated Prepared Foods: Meats and Meat Products, Gravy<br />Diseases - Perfringens Food Poisoning<br />Symptoms - Severe Abdominal Cramps, Diarrhea<br /><br />Microbe - <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/escherichiacoli_g.htm">Escherichia coli O157:H7</a><br />Affiliated Foods - Undercooked Meats, Raw Ground Beef<br />Diseases - Hemorrhagic colitis<br />Symptoms - Severe Abdominal Pain, Watery and Bloody Diarrhea, Vomiting<br /><br />Microbe - <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/listeriosis_g.htm">Listeria monocytogenes</a><br />Affiliated Foods - Dairy Products, Raw Vegetables, Raw Meats, Smoked Fish<br />Diseases - Listeriosis<br />Symptoms - Flu-like Symptoms, Persistent Fever, Nausea and Vomiting, Diarrhea<br /><br />Microbe - <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/salmonellosis_g.htm">Salmonella spp.</a><br />Affiliated Foods - Poultry and Eggs, Milk and Dairy Products, Raw Meats, Fish, Shrimp, Peanut Butter<br />Diseases - Salmonellosis<br />Symptoms - Nausea, Vomiting, Abdominal Pain, Fever, Headache, Diarrhea<br /><br />Microbe - <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://seafood.ucdavis.edu/HACCP/Compendium/Chapt18.htm">Shigella spp</a><br />Affiliated Foods - Poultry, Milk and Dairy Products, Raw Vegetables, Fecally contaminated water, Salads: Potato, Chicken, Tuna, Shrimp<br />Diseases - Shigellosis<br />Symptoms - Diarrhea, Abdominal Pain, Fever, Vomiting, Blood or Mucus in Stool<br /><br />Microbe - <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://textbookofbacteriology.net/staph.html">Staphylococcus aureus</a><br />Affiliated Foods - Poultry and Egg Products, Meat Products, Dairy Products<br />Diseases - Staphyloenterotoxicosis, Staphyloenterotoxemia<br />Symptoms - Abdominal Cramping, Nausea and Vomiting, Prostration<br /><br />Microbe - <a onclick="zT(this, '1/XJ')" href="http://textbookofbacteriology.net/cholera.html">Vibrio cholerae</a><br />Affiliated Foods - Contaminated Water, Shellfish<br />Diseases - Cholera<br />Symptoms - Watery Diarrhea, Abdominal Pain, Dehydration, Vomiting, Shock<br /></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-31599145039779608752009-04-26T19:13:00.003+07:002009-04-26T19:17:42.372+07:00Melihat peluang dari 'Sarang Semut'...;)<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfRQy6IFYLI/AAAAAAAAAQs/_hbUt7-jTmA/s1600-h/sarasdfh.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5328973094612983986" style="WIDTH: 320px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 240px" alt="" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfRQy6IFYLI/AAAAAAAAAQs/_hbUt7-jTmA/s320/sarasdfh.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><div align="justify">Tanaman ini berasal dari Papua, tepatnya sebelah barat hutan di daerah Wamena. Berbentuk unik layaknya kayu tua dengan tinggi tak lebih dari 1 meter, dan batang yang banyak mirip tangan seekor gurita. Bagian bonggolnya terlihat menggelembung seukuran bola volley sedangkan bagian dalam berwujud rongga-rongga serbuk berwarna cokelat kehitaman seperti bagian kayu lapuk yang menjadi tempat tinggal hewan semut atau rayap sehingga penduduk asli sekitar Wamena macam Suku Bogondini dan Suku Tolikara menamainya tumbuhan Sarang Semut.<br />Secara genetis, Sarang Semut termasuk dalam spesies Myrmecodia Pendans yang sanggup hidup lama di atas tanah hutan minim air dan perlakuan khusus. Permukaan batangnya dipenuhi oleh duri tajam berfungsi melindungi diri dari binatang herbivora. Jika ingin membudidayakan tanaman ini, mudah saja. Kondisikan tempat penanaman sebagaimana habitat asli Sarang Semut. Demikian keterangan Winston Moeni, pemilik Winston Nursery Sukoharjo, Jateng yang beberapa tahun belakangan mulai mengembangkan Sarang Semut di Jawa.<br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />“Di samping bisa dijadikan tanaman hias karena kekhasan bentuknya, Sarang Semut juga bisa dijadikan sebagai tanaman obat sebagaimana yang dilakukan masyarakat Suku Bogondini dan Suku Tolikara sejak ratusan tahun silam. Sering mereka mencampur sarang semut dengan bubur sagu atau makanan pokok lainnya untuk menyembuhkan rematik, asam urat dan pegal-pegal. Ketika hewan ternak mereka sakit, mereka mengobatinya juga dengan rebusan Sarang Semut”.<br />Hanya itukah khasiat Sarang Semut? Ternyata tidak. Berbagai penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kandungan zat-zat yang terdapat pada Sarang Semut berguna untuk meningkatkan imunitas atau kekebalan tubuh serta mampu memberikan energi bagi manusia. Kandungan zat-zat itu meliputi beberapa senyawa aktif antioksidan (Tokoferol dan Fenolik), Kalsium (Ce), Natrium (Na), Kalium (K), Seng (Zn), Besi (Fe), Fosfor (P) dan Magnesium (Mg), dan dimungkinkan ada kandungan-kandungan lainnya yang sampai sekarang masih terus dibuktikan secara klinis.<br />Jadi Sarang Semut mampu menanggulangi multi ragam penyakit dari yang ringan sampai penyakit berat dan kronis. Adapun manual pembuatan obat Sarang Semut cukup simpel yaitu dengan mengambil lima sendok serbuk bagian dalam tanaman ini kemudian dilarutkan, diaduk-aduk ke dalam segelas air putih atau sekitar 200 cc. setelah itu diminum sedikitnya 3 kali sehari<br /></div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-23296631203001280612009-04-26T19:10:00.001+07:002009-04-26T19:11:45.212+07:00AYAM KLONING KEBAL FLU BURUNG<div align="justify">Wabah flu burung pernah menyerang di Spanyol dengan korban 40-50 jiwa pada tahun 1918, di Asia 1 juta jiwa tahun 1957, di Hong Kong juga 1 juta jiwa. Serangan flu burung hingga saat ini mencapai ratusan saja.<br />Sebuah tim ahli yang dipimpin oleh Dr. Laurence Tiley melalui Multi-institute British Research Project, bekerjasama dengan Dr. Helen Sang dari Roslin Institute Edinburg, Scotland melakukan eksplorasi potensi penciptaan ternak unggas yang memiliki sifat resisten terhadap virus flu burung dengan menggunakan teknologi modifikasi genetik.<br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />Strategi untuk memperoleh ayam kebal flu burung dilakukan dengan mempertimbangkan mekanisme kekebalan alamiah dan memadukan dengan metode pembaharuan yang inkonvensional. Pekerjaan ini bertujuan memproduksi ayam yang memiliki kekebalan terhadap semua strain (galur) virus flu burung baik yang bersifat HPAI (Hight Pathogenic AI) maupun LPAI (Low Pathogenic AI).<br />Itulah kesulitan dan tantangan proyek tersebut. Seperti kita ketahui strain virus flu ditentukan oleh Haemaglutinin dengan kode H dan Neuraminidase dengan kode N yang terdapat pada selubung protein luar. Hingga saat ini terdapat H 1 sampai 15 dan N 1 sampai 9. Profesor Rangga Tabu dari UGM menambahkan hingga H 16. Virus yang mewabah saat ini adalah H5N1 yang bersifat HPAI.<br />Apabila ayam kebal flu burung tersebut telah diproduksi secara massal dan diperdagangkan secara komersial, maka terjadi efisiensi dalam memproduksi vaksin. Artinya tidak diperlukan lagi sama sekali vaksin flu burung yang jika kita hitung kombinasi strainnya dapat mencapai 135 jenis. Itu secara teknis maupun ekonomis.<br />Sebenarnya terdapat beberapa alasan mengapa penelitian itu dilakukan. Pertama, flu burung telah menjadi persoalan global saat ini. Seluruh dunia berada pada posisi pertengahan wabah terbesar internasional yang pernah tercatat dari jenis virus HPAI. Ratusan juta ternak telah dibantai dalam rangka pengendalian penyakit. Hal ini telah menyebabkan penderitaan tersendiri bagi para peternak.<br />Kedua, adanya kekhawatiran kemampuan virus untuk menular dan berkembang antar spsies yakni kemungkinan besar terjadinya penularan dari hewan ke manusia. Lebih lanjut dari manusia ke manusia. Ayam merupakan jembatan spesies yang potensial bagi penularan virus barbahaya ini dan dapat memfasilitasi penularan dari unggas liar ke manusia.<br /><br /></div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-22174059017143557182009-04-26T19:02:00.001+07:002009-04-26T19:03:36.730+07:00JELLY JAMBU BIJI MERAH DAN JELLY DURIAN MINUMAN SEHAT TANPA PENGAWET<div align="justify"><blink>Durian dan jambu biji merah merupakan komoditas yang banyak dijumpai di beberapa daerah di Sumatera Barat. Durian banyak dikembangkan pada hampir semua Kabupaten dan Kota di Sumatera Barat, mencakup luasan 1.668,75 hektar yang mampu memproduksi sekitar 36.801,90 ton. Sementara itu, produksi jambu biji merah sering dijumpai dalam jumlah yang cukup banyak di Kota Padang.<br />Pengolahan berbagai komoditas tanaman buah-buahan menjadi berbagai produk olahan, merupakan salah satu cara yang umum dilakukan untuk mengantisipasi limpahan produksi yang tidak laku terjual atau afkiran yang masih baik, yang seringkali terjadi pada saat musim panen raya. Pengolahan produk pertanian salah satunya juga bertujuan untuk meningkatkan nilai tambah maupun nilai jual. Salah satu bentuk olahan yang saat ini dapat dikembangkan adalah pembuatan minuman jelly.</blink></div><blink></blink><br /><div align="justify"><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />Minuman jelly dibuat dengan cara mengekstrak buah dan menambahkan tepung jelly sebagai pengental, gula tebu sebagai pemanis, garam dan asam sitrat. Jelly buah-buahan mengandung nutrisi yang berguna bagi kesehatan. Jelly ini dapat dikatakan sebagai minuman fungsional, yaitu minuman yang berkhasiat menjaga kesehatan.<br />BPTP Sumatera Barat menangkap peluang pengembangan usaha tersebut dan telah mengkaji teknologi inovasi pengolahan jambu biji merah dan durian menjadi minuman jelly. Teknologi pembuatannya tidaklah sulit, hanya dengan peralatan sederhana dan biaya murah. Produksinya dapat dilakukan dalam skala rumah tangga, baik secara perorangan ataupun berkelompok. Sesuai dengan tuntutan pasar saat ini, maka produk jelly yang dihasilkan tanpa menggunakan bahan pengawet dan pewarna buatan, menarik untuk disuguhkan.</span></div><span class="fullpost"><div align="justify"><br /><strong>Pembuatan Jelly Jambu Biji Merah dan Jelly Durian</strong></div><div align="justify"><strong></strong></span> </div><div align="justify"><span class="fullpost">Bahan-bahan yang diperlukan untuk pembuatan jelly jambu biji merah adalah buah jambu biji merah, tepung jelly, gula pasir, garam dan asam sitrat. Peralatan yang digunakan adalah baskom, pisau, blender, panci, kompor, cup plastik, dan lemari pendingin untuk mempercepat proses pengentalan.<br />Prosedur pembuatan jelly jambu biji merah diawali dengan mencuci, mengupas dan menghancurkannya dengan blender sampai menjadi bubur. Bubur dimasukkan ke dalam panci besar, lalu ditambahkan air sebanyak 2,5 liter untuk setiap 0,5 kg jambu biji merah, kemudian disaring. Hasil saringan atau filtrat ditambah gula pasir, tepung jelly, garam dan asam sitrat. Penambahan bahan-bahan tersebut disesuaikan dengan selera. Selanjutnya, campuran filtrat jambu biji merah tersebut dipanaskan sampai mendidih sambil terus diaduk-aduk.<br />Terakhir, jelly jambu biji merah dikemas dalam cup plastik dan didinginkan dalam lemari pendingin. Setelah mengental, jelly jambu biji merah dapat langsung diminum atau dipasarkan dan tahan disimpan dalam lemari pendingin selama 4 hari, jika disimpan di ruang terbuka hanya tahan 2 hari. Agar tahan lebih lama lagi, sebelum dimasukkan ke dalam lemari pendingin, terlebih dahulu dipasteurisasi dalam air panas dengan suhu 80oC selama 5 menit.</div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-26032524844373749412009-04-26T18:53:00.004+07:002009-04-26T19:09:17.793+07:00Lalat Buah ( Bactrocera sp.)<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfROyf6jpnI/AAAAAAAAAQk/lTScPbGi944/s1600-h/bactrocera_oleae_caceres_01_t2.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5328970888553670258" style="WIDTH: 229px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 320px" alt="" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfROyf6jpnI/AAAAAAAAAQk/lTScPbGi944/s320/bactrocera_oleae_caceres_01_t2.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><div align="justify">Salah satu hama penting tanaman hortikultura yang saat ini menjadi isu nasional juga menjadi faktor pembatas perdagangan (trade barrier). Adalah lalat buah. Komoditas ekspor suatu negara dapat ditolak oleh negara lain dengan alasan terdapatnya lalat buah.<br />Jenis Lalat Buah di IndonesiaLalat buah yang banyak terdapat di Indonesia adalah dari genus Bactrocera dan salah satu jenis yang sangat penting dan ganas adalah <em>Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel complex</em>. <em>B. dorsalis Hendel complex</em> merupakan lalat buah yang bersifat polifag, mempunyai sekitar 26 jenis inang seperti belimbing, jambu biji, tomat, cabai merah, melon, apel, nangka kuning, mangga, dan jambu air.<br />Selain merusak buah-buahan seperti jatuhnya buah muda yang terserang, serangan hama ini juga menyebabkan buah menjadi busuk dan dihinggapi belatung lalat buah juga merupakan vektor bakteri <em>Escherichia coli</em>, penyebab penyakit pada manusia sehingga dapat dijadikan alasan untuk menghambat perdagangan. Untuk mencegah masuknya spesies baru lalat buah ke Indonesia, pemerintah mengeluarkan Permentan No.37/ KPTS/HK. 060/172006 yang menetapkan hanya tujuh pintu masuk buah segar ke Indonesia, yaitu Batu Ampar, Batam; Ngurah Rai, Bali; Makassar; Belawan, Medan; Tj. Priok, Jakarta; Tj. Perak, Surabaya, dan Cengkareng, Jakarta.<br />Intensitas serangan lalat buah di beberapa daerah di Jawa Timur dan Bali menunjukkan variasi yang cukup besar, berkisar antara 6,4-70% Intensitas serangan lalat buah pada mangga berkisar antara 14,8-23%. Namun tidak jarang kerusakan yang diakibatkan lalat buah, khususnya pada belimbing dan jambu biji, dapat mencapai 100% .<br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br /><strong><span style="color:#33ccff;">Gejala</span></strong></span></div><br /><div align="justify"><span class="fullpost">Pada buah yang terserang biasanya terdapat lubang kecil di bagian tengah kulitnya. Serangan lalat buah ditemukan terutama pada buah yang hampir masak. Gejala awal ditandai dengan noda/titik bekas tusukan <span style="color:#ff0000;">ovipositor</span> (alat peletak telur) lalat betina saat meletakkan telur ke dalam buah. Selanjutnya karena aktivitas hama di dalam buah, noda tersebut berkembang menjadi meluas. Larva makan daging buah sehingga menyebabkan buah busuk sebelum masak. Apabila dibelah pada daging buah terdapat belatung-belatung kecil dengan ukuran antara 4-10 mm yang biasanya meloncat apabila tersentuh. Kerugian yang disebabkan oleh hama ini mencapai 30-60%. Kerusakan yang ditimbulkan oleh larvanya akan menyebabkan gugurnya buah sebelum mencapai kematangan yang diinginkan.<br /><strong><span style="color:#33ccff;">Bioekologi</span></strong></span></div><br /><div align="justify"><span class="fullpost">Dalam siklus hidupnya lalat buah mempunyai 4 stadium hidup yaitu telur, larva, pupa dan dewasa. Lalat buah betina memasukkan telur kedalam kulit buah jeruk atau di dalam luka atau cacat buah secara berkelompok. Lalat buah betina bertelur sekitar 15 butir. Telur berwarna putih transparan berbentuk bulat panjang dengan salah satu ujungnya runcing. Larva lalat buah hidup dan berkembang di dalam daging buah selama 6-9 hari. Larva mengorek daging buah sambil mengeluarkan enzim perusak atau pencerna yang berfungsi melunakkan daging buah sehingga mudah diisap dan dicerna. Enzim tersebut diketahui yang mempercepat pembusukan, selain bakteri pembusuk yang mempercepat aktivitas pembusukan buah. Jika aktivitas pembusukan sudah mencapai tahap lanjut, buah akan jatuh ke tanah, bersamaan dengan masaknya buah, larva lalat buah siap memasuki tahap pupa, larva masuk dalam tanah dan menjadi pupa. Pupa berwarna kecoklatan berbentuk oval dengan panjang 5 mm. Lalat dewasa berwarna merah kecoklatan, dada berwarna gelap dengan 2 garis kuning membujur dan pada bagian perut terdapat garis melintang. Lalat betina ujung perutnya lebih runcing dibandingkan lalat jantan. Siklus hidup dari telur menjadi dewasa berlangsung selama 16 hari. Fase kritis tanaman yaitu pada saat tanaman mulai berbuah terutama pada saat buah menjelang masak. Lalat buah yang mempunyai ukuran tubuh relatif kecil dan siklus hidup yang pendek peka terhadap lingkungan yang kurang baik. Suhu optimal untuk perkembangan lalat buah ? 26?C, sedangkan kelembaban relatif sekitar 70%. Kelembaban tanah sangat berpengaruh terhadap perkembangan pupa. Kelembaban tanah yang sesuai untuk stadia pupa adalah 0-9%. Cahaya mempunyai pengaruh langsung terhadap perkembangan lalat buah. Lalat buah betina akan meletakkan telur lebih cepat dalam kondisi yang terang, sebaliknya pupa lalat buah tidak akan menetas apabila terkena sinar. Lalat buah paling banyak menyerang pada <span style="color:#ff6666;">pamelo (<em>Citrus grandis</em>)</span> dan sedikit yang menyerang <span style="color:#ff9966;">jeruk manis (<em>C. sinensis</em>)</span> maupun <span style="color:#ff9966;">keprok (<em>C. reticulata</em>)</span>. Pada pamelo diidentifikasi sebagai <em>B. carambolae</em> dan <em>B. papayae.</em> Pada pamelo serangan lalat buah kadang-kadang bersamaan dengan serangan penggerek buah <em>Citripestis sagitiferella</em>, sehingga agak sulit membedakan serangga tersebut. Hama ini banyak ditemukan di sentra-sentra produksi jeruk seperti di Sumatera Utara dan Jawa Timur.</span></div><br /><div align="justify"><span class="fullpost" style="color:#33ccff;"><strong>Pengendalian Lalat Buah</strong></span></div><br /><div align="justify"><span class="fullpost">Di Hawaii, pengendalian lalat buah memadukan beberapa teknik pengendalian, di antaranya dengan atraktan dalam perangkap, yang dapat menekan penggunaan pestisida kimia sintetis hingga 75-95%. Beberapa teknik pengendalian telah banyak dikembangkan, di antaranya penggunaan GA (Gibberellic Acid), yaitu membuat penampilan buah-buahan tidak matang, sehingga lalat buah enggan meletakkan telur pada buah. Selain itu, pelepasan serangga mandul, khususnya jantan mandul, telah dikembangkan pula dan memberikan hasil yang memuaskan. Teknik lain yang sudah berhasil dikembangkan di Australia adalah foliage baiting (penggunaan umpan beracun), coversprayng (penyemprotan tanaman beserta buahnya dengan insektisida), dan trapping (perangkap dengan atraktan di dalamnya), selain menjaga sanitasi kebun (Broghton etal., 2004).<br /><strong><span style="color:#33ccff;">Pengendalian dengan Atraktan (Zat Pemikat)</span></strong></span></div><br /><div align="justify"><span class="fullpost">Penggunaan atraktan metil eugenol merupakan cara pengendalian yang ramah lingkungan dan telah terbukti efektif. Atraktan dapat digunakan untuk mengendalikan hama lalat buah dalam tiga cara, yaitu: (a) mendeteksi atau memonitor populasi lalat buah, (b) menarik lalat buah untuk kemudian dibunuh dengan perangkap, dan (c) mengacaukan lalat buah dalam perkawinan, berkumpul, dan cara makan.</div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-47710628269013850692009-04-26T18:33:00.003+07:002009-04-26T18:46:34.674+07:00membuat bioethanol dari singkong....<div align="justify"><blink>Singkong diolah menjadi bioetanol, pengganti premium. Singkong salah satu sumber pati. Pati senyawa karbohidrat kompleks. Sebelum difermentasi, pati diubah menjadi glukosa, karbohidrat yang lebih sederhana. Untuk mengurai pati, perlu bantuan cendawan <em>Aspergillus sp</em>. Cendawan itu menghasilkan enzim <span style="color:#ff0000;">alfamilase</span> dan <span style="color:#ff0000;">gliikoamilase</span> yang berperan mengurai pati menjadi glukosa alias gula sederhana. Setelah menjadi gula, bam difermentasi menjadi etanol.<br />Lalu bagaimana cara mengolah singkong menjadi etanol? Berikut Langkah-langkah pembuatan bioetanol berbahan singkong. Pengolahan berikut ini berkapasitas 10 liter per hari.</blink></div><blink></blink><br /><div align="justify"><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />1. Kupas 125 kg singkong segar, semua jenis dapal dimanfaatkan. Bersihkan dan cacah berukuran kecil-kecil.<br />2. Keringkan singkong yang telah dicacah hingga kadar air maksimal 16%. Persis singkong yang dikeringkan menjadi gaplek. Tujuannya agar lebih awet sehingga produsen dapat menyimpan sebagai cadangan bahan baku<br />3. Masukkan 25 kg gaplek ke dalam tangki stainless si eel berkapasitas 120 liter, lalu tambahkan air hingga mencapai volume 100 liter. Panaskan gaplek hingga 100"C selama 0,5 jam. Aduk rebusan gaplek sampai menjadi bubur dan mengental.<br />4. Dinginkan bubur gaplek, lalu masukkan ke dalam langki sakarifikasi. Sakarifikasi adalah proses penguraian pati menjadi glukosa. Setelah dingin, masukkan cendawan Aspergillus yang akan memecah pati menjadi glukosa. Untuk menguraikan 100 liter bubur pati singkong. perlu 10 liter larutan cendawan Aspergillus atau 10% dari total bubur. Konsentrasi cendawan mencapai 100-juta sel/ml. Sebclum digunakan, Aspergilhis dikuhurkan pada bubur gaplek yang telah dimasak tadi agar adaptif dengan sifat kimia bubur gaplek. Cendawan berkembang biak dan bekerja mengurai pati<br />5. Dua jam kemudian, bubur gaplek berubah menjadi 2 lapisan: air dan endapan gula. Aduk kembali pati yang sudah menjadi gula itu, lalu masukkan ke dalam tangki fermentasi. Namun, sebelum difermentasi pastikan kadar gula larutan pati maksimal 17—18%. Itu adalah kadar gula maksimum yang disukai bakteri Saccharomyces unluk hidup dan bekerja mengurai gula menjadi alkohol. Jika kadar gula lebth tinggi, tambahkan air hingga mencapai kadar yang diinginkan. Bila sebaliknya, tambahkan larutan gula pasir agar mencapai kadar gula maksimum.<br />6 Tutup rapat tangki fermentasi untuk mencegah kontaminasi dan Saccharomyces bekerja mengurai glukosa lebih optimal. Fermentasi berlangsung anaerob alias tidak membutuhkan oksigen. Agar fermentasi optimal, jaga suhu pada 28—32"C dan pH 4,5—5,5.<br />7. Setelah 2—3 hari, larutan pati berubah menjadi 3 lapisan. Lapisan terbawah berupa endapan protein. Di atasnya air, dan etanol. Hasil fermentasi itu disebut bir yang mengandung 6—12% etanol<br />8.Sedot larutan etanol dengan selang plastik melalui kertas saring berukuran 1 mikron untuk menyaring endapan protein.<br />9. Meski telah disaring, etanol masih bercampurair. Untuk memisahkannya, lakukan destilasi atau penyulingan. Panaskan campuran air dan etanol pada suhu 78"C atau setara titik didih etanol. Pada suhu itu etanol lebih dulu menguap ketimbang air yang bertitik didih 100°C. Uap etanol dialirkan melalui pipa yang terendam air sehingga terkondensasi dan kembali menjadi etanol cair.<br />10. Hasil penyulingan berupa 95% etanol dan tidak dapat larut dalam bensin. Agar larul, diperlukan etanol berkadar 99% atau disebut etanol kering. Oleh sebab itu, perlu destilasi absorbent. Etanol 95% itu dipanaskan 100"C. Pada suhu ilu, etanol dan air menguap. Uap keduanya kemudian dilewatkan ke dalam pipa yang dindingnya berlapis zeolit atau pati. Zeolit akan menyerap kadar air tersisa hingga diperoleh etanol 99% yang siap dieampur denganbensin. Sepuluh liter etanol 99%, membutuhkan 120— 130 lifer bir yang dihasilkan dari 25 kg gaplek<br /></div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-29607569793190286052009-04-26T18:03:00.006+07:002009-04-26T18:19:32.082+07:00Teknik Pembuatan Nata De Coco neh......:)<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfRBtfLyeUI/AAAAAAAAAQU/RQVM7k4vdA4/s1600-h/934894_natta.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5328956508807002434" style="WIDTH: 106px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 100px" alt="" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfRBtfLyeUI/AAAAAAAAAQU/RQVM7k4vdA4/s320/934894_natta.jpg" border="0" /></a> <div><div><br /><div align="justify">Buah kelapa merupakan bagian paling penting dari tanaman kelapa karena mempunyai nilai ekonomis dan gizi yang tinggi. Air kelapa salah satu bagian buah kelapa yang mengandung sejumlah zat gizi yaitu protein, lemak, gula, sejumlah vitamin, asam amino, clan hormon pertumbuhan.<br />Air kelapa dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai media untuk produksi nata de coco. Nata de coco merupakan hasil fermentasi air kelapa dengan bantuan mikroba <em>Acetobacter xylinum</em>, yang <strong>berbentuk padat, berwarna putih, transparan, berasa manis clan bertekstur kenyal</strong>. Selain banyak diminati karena rasanya yang enak dan kaya serat, pembuatan nata de coco pun tidak sulit dan biaya yang dibutuhkan tidak banyak sehingga dapat sebagai alternatif usaha yang dapat memberikan keuntungan.<br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /></span></div><span class="fullpost"><br /><br /><br /><div align="center"><br /><strong><span style="color:#33ccff;">TAHAPAN PEMBUATANNATA DE COCO</span></strong></div><strong><span style="color:#33ccff;"></span></strong><br /><br /><br /><div align="justify"><br /><strong><span style="color:#ff0000;">1. Persiapan media starter</span></strong><br />Starter atau biakan mikroba merupakan suatu bahan yang paling penting dalam pembentukan nata. Sebagai starter, digunakan biakan murni dari <em><span style="color:#3333ff;">Acetobacter xylinum</span></em>. Bakteri ini dapat dihasilkan dari ampas nenas yang telah diinkubasi ( diperam) selama 2-3 minggu. Starter yang digunakan dalam pembuatan nata sebanyak 170 ml.<br /><span style="color:#ff0000;"><strong>2. Penyaringan dan pendidihan</strong></span><br />Untuk menghilangkan kotoran yang bercampur pada air kelapa dilakukan penyaringan air kelapa dengan menggunakan kain saring. Kemudian campurkan gula pasir ( 100 g/l air kelapa ), dengan air kelapa lalu didihkan dan dinginkan.<br /><strong><span style="color:#ff0000;">4. Inokulasi (Pencampuran dengan starter)</span></strong><br />Setelah dingin, pH -nya diatur dengan menambahkan asam asetat atau asam cuka sekitar 20 ml hingga diperoleh kisaran keasaman (pH) 3-4. Kemudian diinokulasi dengan menambahkan starter (<em>Acetobacter xylinum</em>) 170 ml.<br /><strong><span style="color:#ff0000;">5. Fermentasi (Pemeraman)<br /></span></strong>Masukkan campuran tersebut ke dalam wadah fermentasi ( baskom berukuran 34 x 25 x 5 cm ). Wadah ditutup dengan kain saring dan diletakkan ditempat yang bersih dan aman. Dilakukan pemeraman selama 8-14 hari hingga lapisan mencapai ketebalan kurang lebih 1.5 cm.<br /><strong><span style="color:#ff0000;">6. Pemanenan<br /></span></strong>Setelah pemeraman selesai dengan terbentuk lapisan nata, lapisan nata diangkat secara hati-hati dengan menggunakan garpu atau penjepit yang bersih supaya cairan dibawah lapisan tidak tercemar. Cairan dibawah nata dapat digunakan sebagai cairan bibit pada pengolahan berikutnya.<br />Buang selaput yang menempel pada bagian bawah nata, dicuci lalu dipotong dalam bentuk kubus dan dicuci. Tuang dan rendam potongan nata de coco dalam ember plastik selama 2 - 3 hari dan setiap hari air rendaman diganti. Sesudah itu direbus selama 10 menit. Tujuan perendaman dan perebusan untuk menghilangkan rasa asam.7. Pembuatan sirup nata Pembuatan sirup nata dengan perbandingan untuk 3 kg produk nata potongan diperlukan 2 kg gula dan 4,5 liter air. Gula dituangkan ke dalam air, panaskan sampai larut, lalu disaring. Selanjutnya nata dicampur dalam larutan sirup gula, bila perlu tambahkan essence kemudian biarkan satu malam agar terjadi penyerapan gula ke dalam potonganpotongan nata, lalu didihkan selama 15 menit.<br /><strong><span style="color:#ff0000;">8. Pengemasan</span></strong><br />Selanjutnya nata dikemas dalam kantong plastik atau botol selai dengan perbandingan antara padatan dan cairan 3:1, botol ditutup rapat, kemudian direbus dalam air mendidih selama 30 menit. Angkat dan dinginkan di udara dengan tutup terletak pada bagian bawah, selanjutnya botol diberi label dan siap untuk dipasarkan.</div><br /><br /><br /><p align="center"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfRA35C3vPI/AAAAAAAAAQM/SE5NaDNMqUY/s1600-h/natadecoco.png"></a></p><br /><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfRDCMn4m2I/AAAAAAAAAQc/MGaMYgzOkjc/s1600-h/Gambar22.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5328957964113451874" style="WIDTH: 320px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 240px" alt="" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfRDCMn4m2I/AAAAAAAAAQc/MGaMYgzOkjc/s320/Gambar22.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><div align="justify"> </div></span></div></div>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-58364043504519767652009-04-26T17:26:00.006+07:002009-04-26T17:33:09.377+07:00Viruses Can Turn Harmless E. Coli Dangerous....^_^<div align="center"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfQ3j3buYLI/AAAAAAAAAQE/RIratGou2Os/s1600-h/brahrt.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5328945348401324210" style="WIDTH: 219px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 273px" alt="" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfQ3j3buYLI/AAAAAAAAAQE/RIratGou2Os/s320/brahrt.jpg" border="0" /></a><span style="font-size:78%;"> <span style="color:#ff0000;">Viruses attacking E. coli, (electron microscopy picture). (Credit: Image courtesy of Norwegian School of Veterinary Science)</span></span><br /></div><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfQ3eZZ-sJI/AAAAAAAAAP8/ldgn9ZnfC78/s1600-h/bacteriophaget4.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5328945254441595026" style="WIDTH: 170px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 118px" alt="" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SfQ3eZZ-sJI/AAAAAAAAAP8/ldgn9ZnfC78/s320/bacteriophaget4.jpg" border="0" /></a> <span style="font-size:78%;color:#ff0000;">Bacteriophage Structure© Gary E. Kaiser</span><br /><p><span style="font-size:78%;color:#ff0000;"></span> </p><p align="justify">For her doctorate, Camilla Sekse studied how viral DNA can be transmitted from pathogenic to non-pathogenic E. coli. Viruses that infect bacteria in this way are called bacteriophages. Her findings reveal that such transmission of bateriophage between bacteria can occur, and that in the case of E. coli it can transform a harmless bacterium into one capable of causing disease in man.</p><div align="justify">Escherichia coli is a complex group of gut bacteria that are found in all warm-blooded animals and are for the most part harmless. A few, however, cause disease in man and animals. The E. coli bacteria that produce a poison called Shiga toxin can produce a range of effects in man. One common effect is bloody diarrhoea followed by complications such as kidney failure (haemolytic uraemic syndrome). The bacteria may be spread through contaminated food or water, or from contact with animals.<br /><br /></div><div align="justify"><br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br /><strong><span style="color:#33ccff;">A combination of qualities necessary to produce disease</span></strong><br />A sequence of favourable circumstances needs to exist before E. coli can produce disease. The most important of these is the ability to produce Shiga toxin. The gene that codes for Shiga toxin is not innate, but is contained within bacteriophages. In other words, the bacterium needs first to be infected by a bacteriophage coding for Shiga toxin in order to produce the toxin itself.<br />In her work, Camilla Sekse studied E. coli O103:H25 bacteria isolated both from foodstuffs and patients from the E. coli outbreak of 2006. She and her colleagues discovered special features of these E. coli bacteria that separate them from ordinary, benign forms. This discovery lead to it being easier to demonstrate E. coli O103:H25 in suspect food products.<br /><br /><strong><span style="color:#33ccff;">Dangerous bacteria in our environment</span></strong><br />It seems that E. coli O103:H25 has existed in Norway for some time, since this bacterium was also found to be a cause of the kidney failure outbreaks both in 2003 and 2005. Studies of the entire genome of this bacterium have shown that it more closely resembles the enteropathogenic E. coli (bacteria that cause diarrhoea) than the more common, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli, namely E. coli O157:H7.<br />Escherichia coli bacteria that are not disease-causing can absorb and lose bacteriophages coding for Shiga toxin, and can be important in the spread of these bacteriophages in the environment, even though they don't themselves cause disease. It appears that some E. coli bacteria can both more easily absorb and lose bacteriophages that contain the gene for Shiga toxin, and this may well be the case for E. coli O103:H25.<br />The work was primarily carried out at the Department Food Safety & Environment of the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science. Parts of the study were done in close collaboration with scientists of the University of Barcelona and at the Technical University of Denmark in Copenhagen, and in co-operation with the Norwegian Institute of Public Health in Oslo. The project was financed by the Research Council of Norway and the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science.</div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-52624987337038190972009-04-22T02:09:00.003+07:002009-04-22T02:12:46.276+07:00Minimizing The Spread Of Deadly Hendra Virus<div align="center"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Se4abUOgEpI/AAAAAAAAAP0/hEy0ESqKK6k/s1600-h/hj.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5327224465814196882" style="WIDTH: 300px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 212px" alt="" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Se4abUOgEpI/AAAAAAAAAP0/hEy0ESqKK6k/s320/hj.jpg" border="0" /></a> </div><div align="center"><span style="font-size:78%;color:#ff0000;">This artificially coloured electron micrograph of Hendra virus is from the first identified case in Brisbane in 1994. (Credit: CSIRO)<br /></div></span><div align="justify"><blink>CSIRO Livestock Industries' scientists working at the Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL), in Geelong Victoria, have made a major breakthrough in better understanding how Hendra spreads from infected horses to other horses and humans. </blink></div><br /><br /><div align="justify"><blink>Funded by the Australian Biosecurity CRC for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Dr Deb Middleton and her team at AAHL have defined the period following the first signs of disease when horses are most likely to shed Hendra virus and therefore infect other horses and people.<br />First identified in Brisbane in 1994, Hendra virus, which spreads from flying foxes, has regularly infected horses in Australia. Of the 11 equine outbreaks, four have led to human infection, with three of the six known human cases being fatal, the most recent of these in August 2008.<br />Dr Deb Middleton and her team at AAHL have defined the period following the first signs of disease when horses are most likely to shed Hendra virus and therefore infect other horses and people.</blink></div><br /><br /><blink></blink><br /><br /><br /><div align="justify"><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />Dr Middleton says limited information in the past, on when the disease can transmit, has made it difficult to manage infected horses to stop Hendra spreading further to people and other susceptible horses.<br />"Our research has also determined the best biological samples required for rapid diagnosis of the virus in horses and identified the important relationship between the period of highest transmission risk and the time with which the disease can easily be detected," Dr Middleton says.<br />As a result of these findings, veterinarians and horse owners are likely to consider the possibility of Hendra virus infection sooner when dealing with sick horses. This will mean appropriate management strategies can be put in place immediately, reducing the risk of spread while testing is being carried out.<br />"Unlike in horse flu, where apparently healthy horses can transmit the virus, horses in the early stages of Hendra infection generally appear to be at lower risk compared to animals with more advanced signs of illness."<br />These research findings will be used to update the guidelines that horse owners and vets use to handle potential Hendra virus infections.<br />Dr Middleton says her research also indicates there is an opportunity to diagnose Hendra virus in horses early, prior to advanced clinical signs and the highest risk of transmission.<br />"Developing a sensitive and specific stall-side test, which vets could use out in the field to diagnose the disease, has become even more important. However there are still key challenges to developing this type of advanced technology."<br />Although it is still not known how Hendra spreads from flying foxes to horses, Dr Middleton says the key to preventing human exposure and the exposure of additional horses is first understanding the disease in horses and secondly controlling the viral spread from diseased horses.<br />All research for the project was undertaken within AAHL's high-biocontainment facility.<br /></div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-39555944119891192732009-04-22T01:59:00.004+07:002009-04-22T02:06:54.289+07:00Climate Change Makes Migrations Longer For Birds<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Se4ZPqUMHbI/AAAAAAAAAPs/V6W1v3kaPH8/s1600-h/090415074856.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5327223166073576882" style="FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 10px 10px 0px; WIDTH: 300px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 199px" alt="" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/Se4ZPqUMHbI/AAAAAAAAAPs/V6W1v3kaPH8/s320/090415074856.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><div align="justify"><blink>A team of scientists, led by Durham University, have published findings that show that the marathon flights undertaken by birds to spring breeding grounds in Europe, are going to turn into even more epic journeys; the length of some migrations could increase by as much as 250 miles.</blink></div><br /><div align="justify"><blink>The research team looked at the current migration patterns of European Sylvia warblers, a group of birds that are common residents and visitors to Europe, like the Blackcap. Published in the Journal of Biogeography, the scientists demonstrate evidence of potential breeding ranges shifting northwards in the future, while the wintering ranges remain stationary for many species.</blink></div><br /><div align="justify"><blink><br />The team used simulation models to see how climate change might affect warblers and found that climate change will have significant impacts, particularly on the projected migration distances for some of the long distance fliers.</blink></div><br /><div><blink></blink></div><br /><div align="justify"><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />Some 500 million birds are estimated to migrate to Europe and Asia from Africa; birds as small as 9 grams undertake the annual migration of 1,000s of miles between the two continents to find food and suitable climate. Birds have to put on a large amount of weight as fat before migrating long distances; they even shrink the size of some of their internal organs to become more fuel efficient. Some species must double their weight to have enough energy to undertake the huge journeys. The first of these migrants are now starting to reappear once again in the UK countryside.<br />Team leader, Dr Stephen Willis of Durham University, said birds face an increasing fight to survive: “Most warblers come here in spring and summer time to take advantage of the surplus of insects, and leave for warmer climes in the autumn. From 2071 to 2100, nine out of the 17 species we looked at are projected to face longer migrations, particularly birds that cross the Sahara desert.<br />“Our findings show that marathon migrations for some birds are set to become even longer journeys. This is bad news for birds like the Whitethroat, a common farmland bird. The added distance is a considerable threat.”<br />Co-author of the research paper, Professor Rhys Green of Cambridge University and RSPB said: "These tiny birds make amazing journeys, pushing themselves to the limits of endurance. Anything that makes those journeys longer or more dependent on rare and vulnerable pit-stop habitats used for refuelling on migration could mean the difference between life and death.”<br />In terms of EU policy, the predicted effects of climate change on birds indicate a need for an appraisal of the designation of protected areas for migrant species, including key areas used for stopovers on long-distance migrations. The protection of bird species within the European Union is covered by legal directives that require member states to designate and protect Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) for habitats and Special Protection Areas (SPAs), the latter specifically designated to protect birds.<br />The research predicts that some species that fly long distances (on average 2,800 miles to 3,700 miles), are likely to face significantly longer flights, up to 250 miles longer, and shorter distance fliers may face journeys of up to 125 miles longer. Some birds cross the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara in one go, whilst others pause to refuel in North Africa before crossing the desert. Night flying when the temperature is cooler is a technique that is also used by some of the long distance fliers.<br />Northern parts of the species’ ranges are expected to become of increasing importance and in some cases, species of northern populations are already thought to be exhibiting increases. Some birds might also be able to find new short distance routes. One common migrant, the Blackcap has already started spending winters in the UK.<br />Professor Rhys Green said: "These findings come as many people in the UK are enjoying the sights and sounds of their favourite birds returning after a winter in Africa. The challenges are large if we are to continue to see and hear these harbingers of the spring in anything like the numbers we are used to witnessing.<br />"We have already seen evidence that birds' ranges are moving north to track suitable climate conditions in the way predicted by past modelling. This latest research suggests they will face an increase in the length of an already arduous journey.”<br />Assuming increases in the fuel requirements for longer migrations can be physiologically accommodated by birds, they are likely to require more time for feeding prior to migration and/or additional stopovers to feed.<br />Nathalie Doswald, a student on the Durham team, said: “The projected distances for migrations would require long and short distance fliers to increase their fuel loads by 9 per cent and 5 per cent of lean body mass respectively. The predicted future temperature changes and the associated changes in habitat could have serious consequences for many species.”<br />Dr Willis said: “Some species may be able to adapt and change, for example by adopting shorter migration routes, if they can find enough food at the right time. Bird migrations are incredible feats of stamina and endurance but, as temperatures rise and habitats change, birds will face their biggest challenge since the Pleistocene era.”<br />Average migration distances – now and (in brackets) predicted for the future.<br />The four species with the largest predicted migration increases:<br />Subalpine Warbler – 1,615 miles (1,895-2,081miles) - Southern Europe to sub-Saharan Africa<br />Orphean Warbler – 1,679 miles (1,926-2,019 miles) - Southern Europe to sub-Saharan Africa<br />Barred Warbler – 2982 miles (3480-3,573 miles) - Central Europe to sub-Saharan Africa<br />Whitethroat – 3,417 miles (3,541-3,759 miles) – All Europe to sub-Saharan Africa<br />This research was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council and the RSPB.<br /></div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-84617596202947466672009-04-21T10:00:00.002+07:002009-04-21T10:13:15.822+07:00All Octopuses Are Venomous: Could Lead To Drug Discovery<div align="justify">Once thought to be only the realm of the blue-ringed octopus, researchers have now shown that all octopuses and cuttlefish, and some squid are venomous. The work indicates that they all share a common, ancient venomous ancestor and highlights new avenues for drug discovery.</div><div align="justify">Conducted by scientists from the University of Melbourne, University of Brussels and Museum Victoria, the study was published in the Journal of Molecular Evolution.<br />Dr Bryan Fry from the Department of Biochemistry at the Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne said that while the blue-ringed octopus species remain the only group that aredangerous to humans, the other species have been quietly using their venom for predation, such as paralysing a clam into opening its shell.</div><div align="justify"><br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />“Venoms are toxic proteins with specialised functions such as paralysing the nervous system” he said.<br />“We hope that by understanding the structure and mode of action of venom proteins we can benefit drug design for a range of conditions such as pain management, allergies and cancer.”<br />While many creatures have been examined as a basis for drug development, cephalopods (octopuses, cuttlefish and squid) remain an untapped resource and their venom may represent a unique class of compounds.<br />Dr Fry obtained tissue samples from cephalopods ranging from Hong Kong, the Coral Sea, the Great Barrier Reef and Antarctica.<br />The team then analysed the genes for venom production from the different species and found that a venomous ancestor produced one set of venom proteins, but over time additional proteins were added to the chemical arsenal.<br />The origin of these genes also sheds light on the fundamentals of evolution, presenting a prime example of convergent evolution where species independently develop similar traits.<br />The team will now work on understanding why very different types of venomous animals seem to consistently settle on the similar venom protein composition, and which physical or chemical properties make them predisposed to be useful as toxin.<br />“Not only will this allow us to understand how these animals have assembled their arsenals, but it will also allow us to better exploit them in the development of new drugs from venoms,” said Dr Fry.<br />“It does not seem a coincidence that some of the same protein types have been recruited for use as toxins across the animal kingdom.”</div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-81077320162547476622009-04-14T23:57:00.002+07:002009-04-15T00:02:15.830+07:00New Orangutan Population Found in Indonesia<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SeTBImc6zTI/AAAAAAAAAPk/TvImpVTg5Xw/s1600-h/0_61_orang_320.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5324593012963724594" style="FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 10px 10px 0px; WIDTH: 320px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 240px" alt="" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SeTBImc6zTI/AAAAAAAAAPk/TvImpVTg5Xw/s320/0_61_orang_320.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><div align="justify"><blink>Conservationists discovered a new population of orangutans in a remote, mountainous corner of Indonesia — perhaps as many as 2,000 — giving a rare boost to one of the world's most endangered great apes.<br />A team surveying forests nestled between jagged, limestone cliffs on the eastern edge of Borneo island counted 219 orangutan nests, indicating a "substantial" number of the animals, said Erik Meijaard, a senior ecologist at the U.S.-based The Nature Conservancy.<br />"We can't say for sure how many," he said, but even the most cautious estimate would indicate "several hundred at least, maybe 1,000 or 2,000 even."</blink></div><br /><br /><blink></blink><br /><br /><br /><div align="justify"><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />The team also encountered an adult male, which angrily threw branches as they tried to take photos, and a mother and child.<br />There are an estimated 50,000 to 60,000 orangutans left in the wild, 90 percent of them in Indonesia and the rest in neighboring Malaysia.<br />The countries are the world's top producers of palm oil, used in food, cosmetics and to meet growing demands for "clean-burning" fuels in the U.S. and Europe. Rain forests, where the solitary animals spend almost all of their time, have been clear-cut and burned at alarming rates to make way for lucrative palm oil plantations.</span></div><div align="justify"><span class="fullpost">The steep topography, poor soil and general inaccessibility of the rugged limestone mountains appear to have shielded the area from development, at least for now, said Meijaard. Its trees include those highly sought after for commercial timber.<br />Birute Mary Galdikas, a Canadian scientist who has spent nearly four decades studying orangutans in the wild, said most of the remaining populations are small and scattered, which make them especially vulnerable to extinction.<br />"So yes, finding a population that science did not know about is significant, especially one of this size," she said, noting that those found on the eastern part of the island represent a rare subspecies, the black Borneon orangutan, or Pongo pygmaeus morio.<br />The 700-square mile (2,500-square kilometer) jungle escaped the massive fires that devastated almost all of the surrounding forests in the late 1990s. The blazes were set by plantation owners and small-scale farmers and exacerbated by the El Nino droughts.<br />Nardiyono, who headed The Nature Conservancy's weeklong survey in December, said "it could be the density is very high because after the fires, the orangutans all flocked to one small area."<br />It was unusual to come face-to-face with even one of the elusive creatures in the wild and to encounter three was extraordinary, he said, adding that before this expedition, he had seen just five in as many years.<br />Conservationists say the most immediate next step will be working with local authorities to protect the area and others that fall outside of national parks. A previously undiscovered population of several hundred also was found recently on Sumatra island, home to around 7,000.<br />"That we are still finding new populations indicates that we still have a chance to save this animal," said Paul Hartman, who heads the U.S.-funded Orangutan Conservation Service Program, adding it's not all "gloom and doom."<br />Noviar Andayani, head of the Indonesian Primate Association and Orangutan Forum, said the new discoveries point to how much work still needs to be done to come up with accurate population assessments, considered vital to determining a species' vulnerability to extinction.<br />"There are many areas that still have not been surveyed," she said, adding that 18 private conservation groups have just started work on an in-depth census based on interviews with people who spend time in the forests.<br />They include villagers and those working on plantations or within logging concessions.<br />"We hope this will help fill in a few more gaps," said Andayani, adding that preliminary tests in areas where populations are known indicate that the new interview-based technique could provide a clearer picture than nest tallies.<br />"Right now the information and data we have about orangutans is still pretty rudimentary," she said.<br />Some experts say at the current rate of habitat destruction, the animals could be wiped out within the next two decades.<br /><br /><br /></div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-55753291906254178732009-04-14T23:54:00.002+07:002009-04-14T23:56:17.694+07:00Scientists Milk Animals For Malaria Vaccine<div align="justify">In their quest to mass-produce an effective malaria vaccine, scientists might one day replace expensive manufacturing facilities with a goat. In a study reported December 18 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences online, researchers developed mice that could secrete an experimental malaria vaccine into their milk. When the purified candidate vaccine was injected into monkeys, it protected four out of five animals from a lethal dose of the malaria parasite. If the process can be scaled up to larger animals such as goats -- and early experiments indicate it can -- livestock might prove to be inexpensive, high-yield malaria vaccine factories. “A vaccine must not only be effective, it must be cheap to manufacture if it is to be used in those countries hit hardest by malaria,” says lead author Anthony Stowers, Ph.D., a malaria researcher at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). “Using transgenic animals to achieve both ends is an exciting possibility. If it works, a herd of several goats could conceivably produce enough vaccine for all of Africa.” </div><div align="justify"><br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />Transgenic animals are so named because they contain a gene, called a transgene, from another individual or organism. For years transgenic animals, particularly mice, have been used to help scientists understand how genes work and interact with one another. More recently, researchers have introduced genes encoding specific proteins into animals to produce large quantities of those proteins for medical use. Dr. Stowers and his colleagues investigated whether transgenic animals could produce proteins for use in malaria vaccines.<br />Dr. Stowers and Louis Miller, M.D., chief of NIAID’s Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases and the director of its Malaria Vaccine Development Unit, joined other investigators from NIAID and Genzyme Transgenics Corporation, Framingham, Mass., to produce two transgenic mouse strains. Each strain carried a form of the gene for a surface protein from the deadliest malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. The researchers designed the transgenes to be switched on by the cells that line the mammary glands, such that the resulting proteins would be secreted into the animals’ milk.<br />Both mouse strains produced large quantities of the desired vaccine protein, which was used to vaccinate monkeys against malaria. Only one of the five immunized animals contracted the disease. By comparison, six out of seven unvaccinated animals had to be treated for virulent malaria.<br />The high yield of the protein and its ability to stimulate protective immunity in mice offers promising evidence that the technique could also be used in goats or even cows. The researchers had anticipated future studies in goats by designing the transgenes’ on/off switch using regulatory elements from goat DNA. Preliminary experiments, which have not yet been published, suggest the procedure works well in the larger animals. That possibility offers a far more practical option for large-scale vaccine production.<br />Anthony S. Fauci, M.D., who as NIAID director guides an extensive research program on global infectious diseases, believes this approach is promising. “Malaria causes untold suffering in the poorest regions of the world, so we cannot restrict our focus simply to finding a vaccine that works,” he says. “Rather, we must look for innovative strategies that will bring effective vaccines to regions where economic conditions preclude the use of costly alternatives. Transgenic animals could be one way to accomplish that goal.”<br />The study involved many researchers from the two participating institutions. Among these, Drs. Li-How Chen and Harry Meade directed the studies conducted at Genzyme Transgenics. B. Fenton Hall, M.D., from NIAID’s Parasitology and International Programs Branch, also helped initiate the project and played an active role in its development.<br />NIAID is a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). NIAID supports basic and applied research to prevent, diagnose, and treat infectious and immune-mediated illnesses, including HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases, tuberculosis, malaria, autoimmune disorders, asthma and allergies.<br /></div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5524867808253448905.post-15613414343730841212009-04-14T23:49:00.003+07:002009-04-14T23:52:49.889+07:00Chimps beat college students in memory test<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SeS_EcseRDI/AAAAAAAAAPc/j0yAiNDLewE/s1600-h/chimpanzee.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5324590742601876530" style="FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 10px 10px 0px; WIDTH: 300px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 200px" alt="" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_f0oEAoeF92w/SeS_EcseRDI/AAAAAAAAAPc/j0yAiNDLewE/s320/chimpanzee.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><div align="justify">When chimpanzees and university students went head-to-head in a short-term memory test, the chimps scored higher. The study was led by a Kyoto, Japan scientist who has studied the cognitive abilities of primates for 30 years.<br />In a recent study a Japanese researcher used short-term memory tests to compare the cognitive abilities between chimps and college students. The chimps won.<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TC1nJ61l-h4"> </a><a href="http://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/research/forefront/message/rakuyu11_a.htm"><span style="color:#000000;">Tetsuro Matsuzawa</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">, director of the </span><a href="http://www.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/"><span style="color:#000000;">Primate Research Institute</span> </a>at Japan’s Kyoto University, has been studying chimpanzees and chimpanzee communities for 30 years.<br /><blink>...</blink><span class="fullpost"><br /><br />In his official bio at the university he compares the genomic difference between humans as comparable to the difference between horses and zebras and suggests humans are “98.77% chimpanzee.” He has long made the case that humans and chimpanzees are close genetic relatives and that they should co-exist peacefully. </span></div><div align="justify"><span class="fullpost">To demonstrate their cognitive strengths, Matsuzawa taught three chimps, ages one through five, to recognize numbers one through nine. The test involved random flashing numbers on a touch screen computer. After a fraction of a second, the numbers were masked by white squares. The chimps were able to remember the location of up to eight of the numbers, and touch the spot where they had appeared in the correct order. But the college undergrads who volunteered for the study could only accurately recall the location of up to five numbers.</span></div><div align="justify"><span class="fullpost"> Matsuzawa opposes the use of primates in biomedical research and helped launch <a href="http://www.saga-jp.org/indexe.html">SAGA (Support for African/Asian Great Apes)</a> in 1998. SAGA promotes conservation of chimpanzee, gorilla and orangutan natural habitats and supports non-invasive scientific inquiry.<br /></div></span>Mickey Mousehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06460570565232501167noreply@blogger.com0